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More than five millennia ago, a human hand carved the first written word. This written word started the written history. This first written history occurred in Sumer in the city of Uruk. Uruk was located in ancient Mesopotamia along the Euphrates River. The Sumerians created agriculture fed by canals which greatly lessened their reliance on hunting and gathering so they were able to settle down and stay in one location therefore forming communities.

They soon domesticated flocks and herds for predictable yields of eggs, mil, flesh, leather, and wool. The Sumerians also invented the hoe and later the plow. Among other inventions, they invented wheels, ships, metallurgy, and wheel turned baked pottery. With these inventions Sumer had risen to dominate all of Mesopotamia and began trading as far away as the Nile Valley. The Sumerians even wrote manuals on agriculture and how to brew beer. The Sumerians also had a book that they grouped drawing and descriptions of their Kings in. but all of these innovations that now indicated to us that the Sumerians were developing and evolving had not importance to them because what they knew and saw every day was all that they had ever known. In other words prior to the writing there was no way to preserve history.

All ancient Sumerian stories seemed to have no clear beginning, middle, or end; they all seemed to just stay in the middle. One of the greatest pieces of literature during this time is the Epic of Gilgamesh. This is about a King of Uruk who flourished around the third millennium BC. It is believed that Gilgamesh was Semitic rather than Sumerian. The epic begins by describing the splendor of Uruk. Gilgamesh was only part human, his mother was the cow Goddess Ninsum. He was fierce like a bull and as strong as one too but he also had other skills such as engineering and navigation skills. The epic revealed that Sumerian life was highly competitive and Gilgamesh greatly enjoyed competing with anyone who he came across. The people of Uruk complained to Aruru (the universal mother) that they needed a break from Gilgamesh's competitiveness and bullying of the boys and bedding with the girls. They begged her to send Gilgamesh someone who suited him. So she created Enkidu who lived with animals until one day he engages in sex whit Shamhat who was paced for his eyes to see so he would stop protecting the animals and let the hunter kill them. After becoming God like through sex he has to go to Uruk and live among the other people and Gods.

Here he meets Gilgamesh and they fall in love with each other. Later, together they slat a monster which attracts the attention of the Goddess Ishtar to Gilgamesh. She wants him to marry her but Gilgamesh refuses her proposal. This infuriated Ishtar so she sent a bull to destroy him. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat the bull but now Enkidu must die.

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Cahill concludes this chapter by discussing the moon and the sky of Sumer. The summerians built huge temples as close to the sky as they could. The moon and the night sky fascinated many of the Sumerians. The moon when full aroused criminals, induced labor of both humans and animals, and controlled the rising and falling of the waters. For this the moon was thought to have been a God, mainly because the Sumerians did not understand it.

During the second millennium a family of Ur known as Terah's family emerged. In Genesis it is told that "Terah begot Avrah, Nahor, and Haran." Avram is also translated into Abram which later becomes Abraham. Avram married Sarai who was barren and Nahor married Milcah the daughter of Haran. Terah tool Avram his son and Lot the son of Haran, Lots sons, and Sarai to leave Ur and go to Canaan. They settled in Harran where Terah eventually died. Soon after his father's death a voice spoke to Avram and told him to go to a land that was unknown and his name shall be made great and he would be made father of a great nation. So Avram went and took with him Lot, Sarai and all their grain. Upon reaching Canaan God identifies this land as the promise land. From this point on each time God spoke to Avram his promise grew more concrete. Later famine strikes Canaan so Avram heads to Egypt here he allows someone to attempt to kill his wife to save himself.

Avram decided that since he had no child that he would leave his kingdom to his chief servant. Sarai soon becomes pregnant after God reveals to Avram that at the old age of ninety nine he is to become a father by Sarai whom is ninety. God then reveals to Avram that from that point forward every male child at the age of eight days old shall be circumcised. So Avram begin the circumcisions. God told Sara (her name has been changed by God) that he was going to allow her to be impregnated she laughed. When the child is born they name him Yitzhak. God again speaks to Avraham (name given to Avram by God) and asks him to take his newborn child to a mountain a in the land of Moriyya and offer him up as an offering at the mountain that will be disclosed to Avraham at a later date. So Avraham went and he offered his only son at the mountain. God refused the offering. Here Avraham built a famous offering site at Shekhem. Sara dies in Hebron and Avraham purchases the cave of Makhpela build her sanctuary. Not long after Sara's death Avraham dies. Yitzhak had married Rivka and had twin boys Esav and Yaakov (Israel). Israel is the last of the patriarchal figures to which God speaks to.

Joseph is one of the 1 sons of Jacob. He is Jacob's favorite son, which creates jealousy and resentment amongst Joseph's brothers. Jacob's attitude toward Joseph is symbolized by his present to Joseph of a beautiful multicolored coat. One day, Joseph's brothers conspire to throw Joseph in a pit and then sell him to Midianite traders who bring him to Egypt and sell him to the chief steward of the Pharaoh. Joseph's brothers tell Jacob that a savage beast devoured Joseph. To make their story convincing they soak Joseph's coat of many colors in sheep's blood and show it to Jacob. Once in Egypt, Joseph is well treated and put in charge of the household of Potiphar, the chief steward of the Pharaoh. All goes well until Potiphar's wife, angry of Joseph's rejection of her attentions, accuses Joseph of trying to seduce her. Joseph is then put in prison. While in prison, Joseph gains a reputation for successfully interpreting dreams. He is eventually released when the Pharaoh is told of Joseph's skills and wants Joseph to interpret his dreams. Once again, Joseph is successful. He interprets the Pharaoh's dreams explaining that Egypt will have 7 years of plenty and then 7 years of famine. The Pharaoh is greatly pleased with Joseph and puts him in charge of the pharaoh's court and all of Egypt. When the famine years hit, Joseph is put in charge of rations. The famine extended to Canaan so, Jacob sends his sons to Egypt to procure rations. Joseph recognizes his brothers, but they do not recognize him.

Moses was sent down a river in a basket because Pharoah had ordered all Jewish male children to be drowned in the Nile River. The Torah and The Bible tell us that The Pharaoh's daughter discovers Moses in his basket. Miriam, Moses' sister steps out of hiding and asks the Pharaoh's daughter if she would like a Hebrew woman to nurse the baby. The princess says yes and Miriam calls Moses' mother. She raises him till his teen years when she brings him to Pharaoh's daughter, at which time she names him Moses.

When Moses was a bit older he comes across an Egyptian beating a Hebrew. Defending his kinsman, Moses strikes and kills the Egyptian. Moses realizes that others know he has killed an Egyptian. When Pharoah learns of the murder, he orders Moses killed. Moses flees to Midian. It is here that Moses rescues the daughter of the local priest of Midian, named Reuel but known as Jethro. Moses marries his daughter, Zipporah who gives birth to a son named Gershom.

Moses, while tending his flock comes across a blazing bush that wondrously is not consumed by the flame. The Lord calls to him and tells him to remove his sandals and Moses, afraid to look at God, hides his face. God calls to Moses telling him to return to Egypt to free the Israelites from bondage. Moses fears that no one will believe him. In The Torah and The Bible God tells him to say that his name is Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh, which means, "I will be what I will be." He further says the he is "The God of your fathers, of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob." (Exodus 15) Moses expresses doubts and God reassures Moses that he will succeed and that the Israelites will believe God has sent him. God demonstrates to Moses how he will convince the people by turning Moses' stick into a snake, his skin to leprosy, and promises that if the Israelites still do not believe him that he should take water from the Nile, pour it into the sand and it will turn to blood. Moses continues to protest that he is not deserving because he is slow of speech. God assures him that his brother Aaron will be his mouthpiece.

Moses meets his brother Aaron in the dessert and together they return to Egypt. In Egypt Moses shows the signs God gave him and the Israelites believe him. Moses and Aaron approach pharaoh and tell him that their God has ordered Israelites to celebrate a festival in the wilderness. Pharaoh says no and responds by doubling their workload. The Israelites in their anger blame Moses and Aaron for their extra work. Moses asks God why he is bringing harm to his people and God reassures him that everything will be all right. God once again sends Moses to reassure the Israelites that he speaks for the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and that through a series of signs he will convince Pharoah to let the Israelites leave Egypt. So once again Moses and Aaron approach Pharaoh and ask him to let the Israelites go. God hardens Pharaoh's heart and Pharaoh refuses. A series of 10 plagues are released upon Egypt. 1) All the waters in Egypt are turned to blood and all the fish die. ) Frogs infest Egypt. ) Lice crawl over every man, woman and beast that lived in the land 4) A cloud of insects attack the people. 5) A severe pestilence strikes the livestock of the Egyptians. 6) Egyptian people are covered in boils. 7) Thunder, hail and fire stuck the land of the Egyptians. 8) Locusts cover the sky and fields. ) Darkness falls for days. 10) Every first-born Egyptian child dies including Pharaoh's son. Finally, Pharoah is convinced and the Israelites leave Egypt.

After the Israelites depart, God once again hardens Pharaoh's heart and Pharoah sends an army after the Jews. Once again the Israelites blame Moses for their hardships. Moses reassures them and strikes the sea with his staff and the sea opens up a path of dry land for them to cross. As the Egyptians begin to cross, God orders Moses to stretch out his hand and the dry path closes and drowns the Egyptians. The Israelites wandered in the Sinai desert for 40 years. After three months the Israelites arrived at the foot of the holy mountain of Sinai. A cloud encompasses the mountain and God descends into the cloud. God calls to Moses and Moses climbs up the mountain. God speaks and delivers to Moses the Ten Commandments. Since Moses is gone for a long time, the people begin to lose faith and want to make a God of their own. In the Torah and Bible, Aaron tells them to bring all the gold jewelry they have, and cast it into a mold. Aaron molds it into a golden calf, and the people worship this golden calf. When Moses returns he is infuriated. He throws down the tablets and they shatter. Then he takes the calf that the people made and burns it. He grinds the calf to powder and puts it into the people's water, and makes them drink it. Once again, he goes up the mountain and writes down the commandments.

The Jews continue to wander through the desert toward the Promised Land for the remainder of the 40 years. Moses is allowed to see the Promised Land but not enter. He climbs to the top of Mt. Nebo, which overlooks Canaan. God says, "This is the land which I swore to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. I will give it to your offspring. I have let you see it with your own eyes, but you shall not cross there."

The children of Israel were camped east of the Jordan River. Mourning for Moses was now over and it was time to enter the Promised Land. When God gave the command to begin the conquest, He made a two-fold promise to Joshua "No man will be able to stand before you all the days of your life;" "I will not leave you or forsake you." Then God gave Joshua a two-fold admonition "Be strong and of good courage;" "Observe to do according to all the law which Moses my servant commanded you." The book describes the conquest and division of the land of Canaan and is set against the background of the corrupt and brutal features of Canaanite religion. The Canaanite worship included prostitution of both sexes, infant sacrifice, and other evils for which God commanded the Israelites to exterminate the inhabitants of Canaan. The conquest by Joshua and Israel was God's judgment upon them for their wickedness.

The Philistines, who seemed to be of Aegean origin, settled on the southern coastal plain of Canaan/Land of Israel, in the area that later became known as Philistia. Though bringing unique aspects in their material culture (such as Aegean style pottery, cultic objects and architecture, and political organization), they quite rapidly adopted local Canaanite language and culture, and within some 150 years to a large extent were highly assimilated with the surrounding cultures. With their arrival, they did usher in important innovations, introducing for example efficient military and political organization and superior iron weaponry. The Philistine political organization appears to have been based on a loose alliance of the five main cities, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath and Gaza.

David means ``well-loved. Born in Bethlehem, David was the youngest son of Jesse. David was a shepherd who watched over his fathers flock of sheep both day and night, and was selected to be the next king of Israel while still a young boy and was re-anointed at Hebron. Power against weakness, evil versus good, experience vs. inexperience the story of David fighting Goliath has all of these elements. He went on to fight and win against a vastly superior force. After defeating Goliath, Davids popularity grew by leaps and bounds. Eventually King Saul felt threatened by this to the extent that he sought to kill David. David ran for his life, hiding in the wilderness. Several times he had the opportunity to kill King Saul, but didnt (put his hand against Gods annointed). David was very successful in nearly everything he did. David wrote many of the Psalms. From these we can see the type of heart that he had. He was both a man after Gods own heart, and prone to sin (including adultery) like the rest of us. Yet he was genuinely repentant and went on to do many more great things for God. From Davids initial selection as the next king to his fighting the giant, Goliath, while David was still a boy, David was often the unlikely choice, the least of the candidates, the real underdog.

Solomon, son of David, becomes king in about 70 BC. He too reigns for about 40 years. Solomon builds the Temple in honor of God. The work is completed in about 60 BC. But, Solomon eventually turns away from God and worships false gods. Solomons reign was marked by a constant tension between two conflicting orientations faithfulness to the God of Israel and fulfillment of the Judaic religious precepts, against pervasive foreign influences that penetrated the kingdom as a result of the obligations imposed by the grandiose nature of the kingdom. Solomons reign was marked by a constant tension between two conflicting orientations faithfulness to the God of Israel and fulfillment of the Judaic religious precepts, against pervasive foreign influences that penetrated the kingdom as a result of the obligations imposed by the grandiose nature of the kingdom.

Nathan, in Hebrew meaning God has given, was a prophet of God who served King David and his son and successor King Solomon. He was a wise and steadfast servant of God, and of the Israelite monarchy, who was often consulted by the kings. He was also fearless; it was Nathan who rebuked David after the incident with Bathsheba, and it was Nathan who intervened during the attempted palace coup by Adonijah. It was through Nathan that The Lord decreed to David to make the preparations for the building of the original Temple. It was Nathan who The Lord sent to rebuke King David after his adultery with Bathsheba, and the arranged killing of her husband Uriah. When Davids son Adonijah attempted to succeed David as king in place of Solomon, it was Nathan who revealed the plot to the king and had it stopped.

Jeremiah is known as the weeping prophet. His message consisted of stern rebuke for the sins of Israel and of warning that divine judgment could not be averted. Through him God sought first to turn the hearts of the people back to Him, and failing that, to secure their co-operation with His purpose in the Captivity, which came not as retributive punishment but as remedial discipline. At this crucial period of history Jeremiahs call for submission to the Babylonians earned for him the implacable hatred of rulers and people alike, and he suffered much at their hands. Repeatedly he wept over the sins of Israel, over the doom that threatened his beloved nation, and over the harsh treatment he suffered at the hands of the leaders. Jeremiah had cause for weeping if any prophet ever had, but he bore his message faithfully.

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