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Effects of the Year 000 Problem

Almost everything in the world is recorded or run by computer.

Electricity, communications, medicine, weapons, money, food, factories and

just about anything else you can think of will be effected by the year 000

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problem. The year 000 problem could be the biggest technological problem

the world may ever face. Some people are preparing for world wide crisis.

Others believe some lucky person will invent a small disc that will

eliminate the problem in less time that it takes a person to pop the disk

in their computer. Either way the world is spending billions of dollars

trying to prepare and solve the problem, and so far nobodys been able to

come across an exact solution.

What is the Year 000 Problem?

The Year 000 problem is more commonly referred to as the YK

problem or the Millennium bug. The YK problem has to deal with how

computers keep track of the date. In almost every system before 15 the

date that the computer kept was abbreviated. An example would be that 151

would be abbreviated as 51. So, as a result, computers will read 00 and

think its 100 and not 000. This seemingly small problem will result in a

loss of most records and information kept in computers causing a major

headache for government agencies and major businesses, not to mention all

home owners and other people. Gina Smith writes in a August 18 issue of

Popular Science about the fixing of the problem

You are probably wondering why the problem is so hart to fix. It isnt

Its just that theres so much to be fixed. Updating software to handle the

new century is sometimes a matter of culling through millions of lines of

code, and the finding and fixing every two-digit date reference. One

mistake and the entire operation may be unsuccessful (Smith 6).

What can the YK prblem effect?

On the home front people could be waking up to chaos. In June 18,

PC Computing featured an article where John C. Dvorak shares his thoughts

of what might happen on 1 January 18. He writes

The situation will not be easily corrected and many believe it will

collapse the economy. This will be worsened by municipal systems that will

cut off peoples gas, light, and water since they havent paid their bill

for 100 years. . .all the new car computer that monitor engines with real-

time computer system have date stamping that will fail at midnight, making

it impossible to start the car (Dvorak 4).

Anyone who lives in a cold climate wont appreciate not having any heat

during one of the coldest months of the year. Dvorak continues to go in

depth in how the first problems will create a domino effect and eventually

lead to the fall of the economy

As computer scheduling fails, the food distribution system will fall apart.

The homeless will flock to the farmlands looking for food only to be

butchered as trespassers, their bodies left to rot. Carrion will abound.

Disease will spread from the rotting corpses and be transferred to by packs

of wild dogs. . . . (Dvorak 4)

In January 17, PC Computing estimates that 10% of all businesses wont

survive the transition(Lyon 50). Because of the shutdown of businesses,

many people can expect to be out of a job come the first of January. If

people wake up and find themselves out of a job they may be prepared with a

savings to fall back on. Having an account in a bank could mean more

trouble. Because bank computers are linked through enormous networks, a

breakdown anywhere in the system could adversely affect hundreds of

institutions around the world(Consumer Reports 56). Its possible banks

could loose all records of customers accounts and going to the bank to get

money would be a joke.

The Department of Defense could put the security of its citizens

in jeopardy. Nuclear weapons could accidentally be set off killing millions

of people. Radar and other computer systems might fail causing out defense

system to be unaware of possible attack. In a 1 September 17 issue of

Science News Janet Raloff states

Recently, the Defense Department got a taste of what Headaches lie in

store, when a faulty year 000-related date calculation inappropriately

removed form inventory 0,000 items in DLAs(Defense Logistics Agency)

materiel management system. Correcting the problem took 400 hours to

fix(17).

Raloff went on to say that the DOD is at working on the problem and will

meet their deadline.

Below is a chart of worst case scenarios and what is likely to

happen come the turn of the century. Dante Chinni supplied the chart in a

June 17 issue of Newsweek.

Worst Scenario Likely to Happen

Airlines

At midnight, the nations air-traffic-control systems go dead.

Some planes lose the ability to navigate properly. Chaos in the skies.

Travelers get very familiar with the airport lounge. Airlines fleets stay

aloft, but delays abound. The bottom line Stay home and watch bowl games.

Manufacturing

Security systems leave workers locked outside the front gate.

Assembly lines stop moving. Those 1 models remain on showroom floors.

The big companies get their act together, but suppliers have problems that

slow shipments; 1 models stay on showroom floors.

Banking

The entire financial infrastructure, including the stock market,

goes haywire,. Balances, records and transactions are lost. Some patrons

may be temporarily shut out of their accounts. Electronic wire transfers

may be disrupted. It may be best to keep a few dollars under the

mattress.

Medical

As the ball drops in Times Square, hospital machinery, like IV

units and cardiac monitors, suddenly shuts down. The last thing

patients see is Dick Clark. Hospital paperwork, billing and

patient records get fouled up. Suppliers loose records; tongue depressors

become scarce.

Nuclear Power

Aooouga! Aooouga! Control chip opens the wrong release valve.

Radiation problems make Three Mile Island look like a picnic. Safety systems

suffer small problems. Minor malfunctions cause short-term shutdowns.

Stock up on candles and flashlight batteries.

Military

Defense systems weakened by software snafus. Global positioning

satellites get lost, leaving the nation vulnerable. Some old

battlefield equipment is junked rather than fixed. High-tech systems

get even more temperamental. Faltering programs order $00 hammers.

Government

Feds lose track of government-benefits recipients. The IRS figures

your tax bill is equal to the national debt. Deadly viruses kept under

computer lock are released. Though it got a late start on the

bug, most major systems are intact. Some benefits checks are late. Techno-

veep Gore Takes a hit.(Newsweek 57)

Solutions and Cost

No body has come up with a definite solution thats fast and cost

effective that will stop the YK problem from causing damage. Instead, big

corporations, government agencies, etc…have to spend millions on groups of

computer programmers. Programmers work around the clock trying to find the

two digits, which make up the date, among the millions of lines of code and

reprogram them. Jeff Titcomb describes why the process is so painstaking

It seems that in most mainframe programs, the date appears more often than

MASH reruns on television-about once every 50 lines of code. Typically,

its hard to find those particular lines, because the original programs,

often written in the ancient COBOL computer language, are quirky and

undocumented. After all that analysis, you have to figure out how to

rewrite the lines to correctly process the date. Only then comes the most

time-consuming step testing the rewritten program(Newsweek 54).

Companys with enough money are hiring as many programmers they can hoping

to get the problem solved before its too late. Peter de Jager, a computer

brain trying to solve the YK problem, warns business owners If youre not

changing code by November of this year(17), you will not get this thing

done on time-its that simple. We still dont get it(Newsweek 57). Neil

Gross states

U.S. companies will spend a total of $14 billion on outside consultants

and programmers. . . Throw in new hardware and software purchases , and the

worldwide bill could balloon to $600 billion(Gross 41).

Many people are taking special precautions at home in preparation

for the turn of the century dealing with money, water, heat etc. Its

recommended that you should keep any reciept or make a hard copy of any

money related transaction. A easy way to do this would be to keep track of

these records on your computer. (If your PC is less than two years old it

will have no problem dealing with the YK problem.) Some people who live in

colder climates recommend stocking up on fire wood to provide heat if the

furnaces dont work. Others are putting away a supply of water in case the

pumps fail to work. Some people are even hiding money at home, just in case

they need something to fall back on.

As one can see, the thought of YK problem arouses some terrifying

scenarios. People should keep up with the progress being made concerning

the YK problem so they have and idea what to expect. The effects I

mentioned are just a fraction of all the different possibilities. People

are working day and night trying to solve the problem while the year 000

is just around the corner. These same people are warning us to prepare and

expect the worst. In the end, the YK problem may cause society to collapse.

On the other hand, the YK might be something we laugh about on the evening

news and January 1, 000. Nobody knows!

Dvorak, John C. Apocalypse When? PC Computing June 18 4.

Gross, Neil. Year 000 The Meters Running. Business Week December

17 41.

Hayashi, Alden M. Millennium Bug Zapper. Scientific American June 18

6.

Hogan, Mike. Countdown to Crisis. PC Computing January 18 50-51.

Kagan, Julia. The Year 000 problem. Consumer Reports August 18 56-57.

Raloff, Janet. DODs year 000 vulnerabilities. Science news 1

September 17 17.

Smith, Gina. The Millennial Mess. Popular Science February 17 6.

Smith, Robert. The Day the World Crashes. Newsweek June 17 54, 57,

5.

Wilkinson, Alec. Millennial Malaise The New Yorker 1 January 17 7.

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If you order your research paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on comparison. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality comparison paper right on time.

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Thomas Raddall's "The Wedding Gift" and Budge Wilson's "The Leaving" explore the serious problems of two main characters surrounded by people who ruined and tried to keep them away from their rights, and how they eventually made effective changes in their lives by understanding their circumstances. The characters are similar in the way they changed their unsatisfied situations; however, the extent, stability and effects of those changes are different. They bravely made effective changes in their own unsatisfied lives, and the lives of other people around them, but the one with more understanding of her rights made more effective changes.

In both stories, the main characters did not like their previous situations, and eventually they bravely changed it. In Raddall's story, Kezia, who was taken to Barclays' house when she was fourteen, was forced to marry Mr. Hathaway, who is Mr. Barclay's agent at Bristol Creek. She did not want to marry him, but that was Mr. and Mrs. Barclay's decision. Kezia left Port Marriott for Bristol Creek with Mr. Mears, who was the preacher, to marry Mr. Hathaway. In their journey, Kezia suggested to Mr. Mears that they should bundle together in a hut in order to keep themselves warm throughout the cold night "… she answered vigorously, '… We've got to roll up in these.' 'Together?' he cried in horror. 'Of course! …' … clutched him in her arms, and rolled with him …"(8).Kezia was trying to find an excuse to manipulate Mr. Mears to marry her; therefore, she would change her future. In the morning, when they wanted to continue their journey, she told Mr. Mears that she could not lie to Mr. Barclay and Mr. Hathaway if they asked her where she spent the night. Mr. Barclay was against bundling " Mr. Barclay and the other Methody people are terrible set against it ... bundling was an invention of the devil" (4). Kezia suggested bundling to Mr. Mears, even though she knew Mr. Barclay was against it. She had planned to change her future with a good excuse for Mr. Barclay. Therefore, she manipulated Mr. Mears in getting married. She bravely changed her future to a happy one because obviously a person who did not have a choice in choosing her husband would have a lot of problems in convincing the Barclay's and Mr. Hathaway that she wanted to marry another person. Kezia brought up a good point, bundling, to convince them. Therefore, she made a happy future for herself by not marring Mr. Hathaway; instead, she would marry Mr. Mears.

In Wilson's story, we also see the same effective changes in another person's life. In "The Leaving," Elizabeth was suffering from a situation in which she did not have rights in her family. She could not stand up to her husband, she was not respected and appreciated by other members of the family, and she could not ask her sons to help her in her work. After she got a chance to read the book The Feminine Mystique, she decided to leave home for Halifax at midnight. Elizabeth came back home after three days. Her husband was angry about her leaving, but this time he did not yell at her. He told her, "How come my supper's not ready, woman? … Shut up them damn kids, woman! … This food ain't fit t' eat, woman!"(70). Her husband did not yell at her because he discovered that she had found out her rights; however, in the family the man had power, and her husband did not want to loose it. Therefore, he showed anger and told her to do her job. This time, although she prepared dinner and she cleaned up the house, she was not afraid of talking to her husband. She told him that her name is not 'woman' "My name is Elizabeth"(71). Elizabeth who could not stand up to her husband and talk to him, started to express herself and change her lifestyle. Elizabeth who previously could not ask her sons to help her, started to ask them to do work. She asked her youngest son to bring some water for her daughter. After a while, she also fixed up the attic as a private workroom for herself. She made all these changes bravely. First, she left for Halifax by taking money the family made by selling eggs. In a family that had no rights for Elizabeth, taking money that belonged to whole family required a lot of courage. The family never had enough money to travel to Halifax "We never had enough money to have more than one ride on the Exhibition ferris wheel … ; but here we were buying train tickets …"(66). Even though they were not a rich family, she went to Halifax. She wanted to show that she understood her rights, and tell her husband that she could manage herself. She would leave the family if she could not get her rights. She bravely changed her unwanted situation to a brighter one. She could stand up to her husband, express her ideas, be appreciated for her work and was treated more like a human rather than a thing.

Both Kezia and Elizabeth also had effects on the lives of other people around them. In Raddall's story, Kezia changed the future of Mr. Mears and Mr. Hathaway. Although, she did not want to marry Mr. Hathaway, it was for Mr. and Mrs. Barclay to decide. Mr. Barclay wanted to keep Mr. Hathaway satisfied to continue making profit for him because "Hathaway was a most capable fellow, Mr. Barclay often acknowledged" (). Kezia manipulated Mr. Mears to marry her in their trip to Bristol Creek. She found an excuse, bundling, for Mr. Barclay that he could not refuse. Therefore, Mr. Hathaway's fate was changed because she did not marry him. She decided to marry Mr. Mears, and they would be happy with each other. Mr. Barclay would not be happy because he might not able to keep Mr. Hathaway satisfied.

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In Wilson's story, besides the situation of the main character, the behaviour and thoughts of other people were changed as well. Elizabeth changed her unwanted lifestyle by reading the book The Feminine Mystique and by her leaving to Halifax. In her new situation, Elizabeth and her husband became closer to each other, "One day, for no apparent reason, he started to call her Elizabeth"(7). She made a private room for herself and the others respected her privacy, "No one was allowed to go there except her"(7). Her husband respected and appreciated her more, "… he often speaks to my mother as though she were more of a person and less of a thing. Sometimes he says thank-you." (7). They were helping each other in their work, "The boys lugged up her treadle sewing machine …"(7). Therefore, she eventually succeeded in making changes in the life of other members of the family. She changed the behaviour and thoughts of all members of the family. They now respected each other's thoughts, they appreciated each other, and they helped each other in their work.

In both stories, the characters changed their life after they understood their rights; however, Elizabeth understood her rights more than Kezia. In Raddall's story, "The Wedding Gift," Mr. Hathaway first thought about Miss Julia, the older daughter of Barclays, and then Miss Clara, the younger daughter of Barclays. He did not ask Mr. Barclay's daughters to marry him because as Mrs. Barclay pointed out, "The older daughter … was even then receiving polite attentions from Mr. Gamage … . And Miss Clara was going to Halifax … to display her charms to the naval and military young gentlemen …"(,). Therefore, they were not forced to marry somebody who they did not want to, and they had their right in choosing their husband. After Mr. Hathaway could not ask Mr. Barclay's daughters to marry him, he decided to marry Kezia, who did not have choice in choosing her husband. This provoked her to think why she could not have rights in choosing her husband like other girls. As a result, she decided to manipulate Mr. Mears to marry her, and she thought of an acceptable excuse for Mr. Barclay. Kezia only understood that she herself should be allowed to choose her husband. She did not try to understand her rights in other aspects of her life, especially her future life. When she decided to marry Mr. Mears, she did not bother thinking of her rights for the future and for making her own decisions on the things that would be related to her. She found out her rights for solving her unwanted situation, but she did not think of her rights in other aspects of her life. Therefore, she did not make stable changes in her life.

In Wilson's story, "The Leaving," Elizabeth understood her rights by reading the book The Feminine Mystique and by leaving to Halifax. In Halifax, she saw people's happiness, freedom, and specially women's rights, "Lovers strolled arm in arm, and children shrieked with laughter as they chased the pigeons. I asked Ma why everyone seemed so happy. … she said, 'Weather does things t' people' … 'and maybe some of them's free,' … we watched women racing to work in the morning … shopping women pulled twenty-dollar bills out of their purses as though they were nickels"(68). In Halifax, which was a more liberated city, she was trying to discover her rights and a better lifestyle for her family through other people. After she had read that book and came back from her journey, she started making changes in her life because she found out her rights. She discovered her rights as a wife, which was the ability to speak with the husband and express her ideas while being appreciated. She found out her right as a mother, who should be able to ask for help from her children. She found out her right as a person who works and needs her own private workroom. She found out her rights to be able to change her unwanted situation, and because she found out her rights extensively, she could make effective and stable changes in all aspects of her life and even the life of other members of the family.

The characters similarly had unsatisfied situations that they eventually changed, but their changes had a variety of effect on themselves, others and in understanding of their rights. Both women, who were not satisfied with their situation, bravely changed it by understanding their rights. They also changed other people's lives. Elizabeth, who understood her rights more extensively, made more stable and effective changes in all aspects of her life. For centuries people have been making a lot of changes in their lives, and their relationship to society by increasingly understanding their rights. In every generation, people affect each other's lives. They change each other's thoughts and behaviour. If one is not satisfied with another's behaviour, he should blame himself because he made them behave like that. As Elizabeth said, which is true for all relationships in society, "All along I bin blamin' men for bein' men. But now I see that oftentimes it's the women that makes them that way"(7).

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If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on State & Local Government Accounting. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality State & Local Government Accounting paper right on time.

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State & Local Government Accounting

Sources of GAAP for Government Entities

1. GASB Statements & Interpretations

. GASB Technical Bulletins

Cheap Custom Essays on State & Local Government Accounting

. Consensus Positions of GASB EITF (if it existed)

4. Implementation Guides of GASB Staff & Widely Recognized Industry Practices

5. Other Accounting Literature

Objectives of Financial Reporting for State and Local Governments are based on notion of Accountability (GASB Concept Statement No. 1 (187)

1. Compare actual results to budget

. Assess financial condition and operating results

. Assist in determining compliance with relevant laws and regulations

4. Assist in evaluating efficiency and effectiveness

The Reporting Entity

The Primary Government Typically a state or local government entity.

A Component Unit (e.g., community college, housing authority, arts organization) is usually reported in discrete presentation (separate column), but may be blended.

Contents of Comprehensive Annual Financial Report

• Introductory Section Table of Contents, Transmittal Letter, Officers, Organization Chart

• Financial Section

• Management's Discussion and Analysis

• Auditors' Report

• Basic Financial Statements

• Required Supplementary Information

• Statistical Section

Basic Financial Statements include

1. Government-wide Statements, under Accrual Accounting (GASB Statement No. 4) and Economic resources measurement focus

• Statement of Net Assets (Balance Sheet)

• Statement of Activities

. Fund Statements content and accounting methods vary by fund

. Notes to the Financial Statements

Fund Accounting The use of multiple accounting entities to account for resources segregated according to purpose.

Fund = Fiscal entity with self balancing set of records that record financial resources, related liabilities, residual balances, and changes therein.

Depending on the type of fund, financial statements will be prepared either using the [modified accrual basis and current financial resources measurement focus] or using the [accrual basis and economic resources measurement focus].

Current Financial Resources Focus

Current Assets Current Liabilities = Fund Balance

Economic Resources Focus

Current + Noncurrent Current Long-term = Net Assets

Assets Assets Liabilities Liabilities

Modified Accrual Accounting description/examples

• Revenue Recognition generally, when measurable and available

Imposed Non-Exchange (Tax) Revenue Recognized when taxes are levied & resources available.

Property taxes are an example.

o Derived tax revenues Recognized when susceptible to accrual (measurable and available), and/or when underlying transaction occurs.

Income Tax

Sales Tax

Motor Fuel Tax

o Government-mandated Non-exchange Transactions Record when conditions for receipt are met

Inter-governmental grants (e.g., grant from Federal Government)

o Voluntary Non-exchange Transactions Record when conditions for receipt are met

Similar to other inter-governmental grants, except that no restrictions on the use of the funds are imposed

o Interest accrued as earned

o Miscellaneous Revenue generally cash basis

• Expenditures Generally record when fund incurs liability

• Costs of personnel when paid (but this is close to when incurred because of recurring nature)

• Costs of goods and services when received

• Capital Outlays recorded as expenditures when asset is acquired

• Interest when legally payable (a little different than when incurred, so it is not accrued)

(If due date is one month after fiscal year end, the expenditure may be recorded)

Guidelines for Interest expenditures also apply to other Debt Service (i.e., principal payments)

Types of Funds

Governmental Funds

• General Fund

• Special Revenue Fund

• Capital Project Fund

• Debt Service Fund

• Permanent Fund

Under Modified Accrual Accounting and Current Financial Resources Measurement Focus, Basic Financial Statements Include

• Balance Sheet

• Statement of Revenues, Expenditures, and Changes in Fund Balances

Proprietary Funds

• Internal Service Funds

• Enterprise Funds

Under Accrual Accounting and Economic resources measurement focus, Basic Financial Statements Include

• Statement of Net Assets (Balance Sheet)

• Statement of Revenues, Expenses, and Changes in Fund Net Assets

• Statement of Cash Flows

o Operating

o Noncapital Financing (includes interest and principal paid on debt not related to capital assets)

o Capital and Related Financing (includes capital assets acquired and interest and principal paid on debt related to capital asset acquisitions)

o Investing (includes interest and dividends received)

Fiduciary Funds

• Agency Funds (one government collecting taxes for others)

• Trust Funds (Pension, Investment, Other)

Under Accrual Accounting and Economic resources measurement focus, Basic Financial Statements Include

• Statement of Fiduciary Net Assets

• Statement of Changes in Fiduciary Net Assets

Government-wide Statements (under GASB 4)

• Similar to GAAP for for-profit

• Measurement of Economic Resources

• Accrual Accounting

• Includes recording liabilities for LT Debt, Fixed Assets, and Depreciation

(Under certain conditions, government may choose the modified approach for infrastructure fixed assets, where infrastructure is not capitalized or depreciated. Conditions relate to adequacy of control and maintenance of infrastructure.)

Budgeting (for the General Fund)

Estimated Revenues

Appropriations - Approved or authorized (and estimated) expenditures (in the budget)

Steps in the Expenditure Process

• Appropriation

• Encumbrance A reservation for a Commitment

• Expenditure

• Payment (Disbursement)

At any time, appropriations can be broken down for control purposes into

• Expenditures already made

• Encumbrances (committed, but not expended)

• Unencumbered

Available Original

Remaining = Appropriation Encumbrances - Expenditure

Appropriation

The budget is recorded using debits and credits that are the opposite of actual

Estimated Revenues

Appropriations

Estimated Other Financing Uses (Transfers Out)

Budgetary Fund Balance

Journal Entry Examples For the Governmental Funds

(All entries are recorded in the General (Governmental) Fund unless otherwise stated)

Record the Budget with 400 of expected revenue and 5 of approved expenditures)

Estimated Revenues 400

Appropriations (Budgeted Expenditures) 5

Budgetary Fund Balance 5

Record 00 of tax revenue (and of estimated uncollectibles)

Taxes Receivable-Current 00

Estimated Uncollectible Taxes-Current

Revenues 18

Record taxes received of 176 for current year and 14 for prior year

Cash 10

Taxes Receivable-Current 176

Taxes Receivable-Delinquent 14

Record fees (revenues) for services of 60

Accounts Receivable 60

Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts 0

Revenues 60

Record collections of such fees of 58

Cash 58

Accounts Receivable 58

Record other Revenue of 0 (generally on cash basis)

Cash 0

Revenue 0

Record Expenditures of 0 that did not have an encumbrance

Expenditures 0

Vouchers (accounts) Payable 0

Record encumbrances (commitments) - for things like fixed assets and supplies estimated at 15

Encumbrances 15

Budgetary Fund Balance (BFB)

Reserved for Encumbrances 15

Record receipt of encumbered supplies and payment at 14 actual

BFB Reserved for Encumbrances 15

Encumbrances 15

Expenditures 14

Cash 14

(If the encumbrance is still outstanding at balance sheet date, the reserve for encumbrance is shown as part of fund equity.)

Adjusting entries may be used to record inventory balance (of ) under the "Purchase Method"

Supplies Inventory

Reserve for Supplies Inventory

(part of fund equity)

(When the supplies were originally purchased they were simply recorded as an expenditure.)

Transfers in and transfers out are common and generally also are budgeted.

Closing Entries

Close out Estimated Revenues and Appropriations (the budget) with net going to Budgetary Fund Balance.

Close out Revenues, Expenditures, & Encumbrances (the 'actual') with net going to Fund Balance.

Financial Statements

• Statement of Revenues, Expenditures and Changes in Fund Balance (with Budget and Actual)• Balance Sheet

Fund Equity = Fund Balance = Fund Assets - Fund Liabilities

Unreserved Fund Balance =

Fund Equity (Assets - Liabilities) Reserves

Only the unreserved fund balance is unrestricted and available for appropriation (the reserves have already been committed).

Required Notes to Financial Statements

GASB 4 requires disclosure of

• Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

• Cash deposits with financial institutions

• Investments

• Significant contingent liabilities

• Encumbrances outstanding

• Significant subsequent events

• Annual pension cost and net pension obligations

• Material violations of finance-related legal and contractual provisions

• Debt service requirements

• Commitments under operating leases

• Construction and other significant commitments

• Required disclosures about capital assets

• Required disclosures about long-term debt

• Deficit fund balances or net assets of individual funds

• Interfund receivables and payables

• Significant transactions with discretely presented component units

• Disclosures about donor-restricted endowments

Major Required Supplementary Information

• Budgetary Comparisons for the General Fund and Special Revenue funds with a legally adopted budget

• Disclosures regarding infrastructure if depreciation is not recorded on them

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Othello Iago the Machiavellian

Set in a hotbed of jealousy, hatred and mistrust, "Othello" is a classic tragedy that explores the destruction of a noble spirit. Through a complicated web of miscommunication, lies and deceit perpetrated by Iago, Othello is tricked into believing his wife, Desdemona, has been unfaithful to him. Othello murders her, though she continues to profess her innocence. When he realizes the truth, Othello takes his own life. This essay will try to explain what I believe motivates Iago's actions throughout the play.

Iago is an entity of pure evil he takes pleasure in the way he can manipulate and control the other characters emotions. He has no typical motive for what he does, such as revenge as he doesn't really care about the outside world and its revolutions he only cares about the power he wields or can wield.

In this essay I will be talking about my views on Iago's nature and motives (or the lack of.) Iago is usually portrayed by most as the devil or a projection of the devil. Some critics argue that he has no emotions and that he only carries out these actions because he enjoys it and believes that it is his calling in life. What makes Iago even more evil is that he not only is naturally evil but he is very clever and witty, he knows what he is doing to the hapless people at the receiving end of his manipulation and revels in it. Iago is passionless. But he presents himself as an angel of innocence and solitude towards Othello, Othello is taken in by this as he cries out "honest, honest Iago,"

Ironically Iago is the only one who isn't true to him and deceives him to the end eventually leading to the demise of Othello and Desdemona. Iago himself is a women hater and he expresses this many times throughout the play as well as showing himself to be prejudice and racist, the audience mainly learns of this through his soliloquy's and when he is talking with Roderigo "If sanctimony and a frail vow betwixt an erring barbarian and a supersubtle Venetian be not too hard for my wits….."

Most people would agree that Iago can be considered as a Machiavellian; this basically means that the person in question uses political science based upon the study of man. They usually have no morals, ethics and are completely devoid of religion, scorning it as a weakness or a crutch. Such people are usually very unique in personality but can be very deceptive if they try so that this does not seem always the case. The title Machiavellian is taken from the name of an Italian philosopher called Niccolo Machiavelli; he believed that to be a great ruler "that the ruler must gain the support of the strong either by cajolery, force or deceit." There is also "no room for natural law." Such ideas didn't go down well with the Elizabethans and many totally rejected this idea (just as the majority today) and in Shakespeare's Othello order and natural law reassert itself in the end.

In most plays or stories the villain usually has something to gain in doing despicable acts but this is not the case with Iago as although he has a motive at the start of the play to spark off is anger, he never really has a final objective.

At the very beginning of the play we find ourselves in the midst of a conversation between Iago and Roderigo, it seems as if Roderigo is trying to be very secretive as they are situated on a street at night in Venice. The first words we hear from Iago are "Sblood, but you'll never hear me!" The word Sblood was considered a very strong swear word in British language at the time.

We learn through the conversation that Iago uses crude language and is not well spoken, or noble, but a simple man, a soldier. Iago explains to Roderigo why he hates the general, Othello.

It seems that he had pleaded with Othello for the position of lieutenant in the army, but despite his efforts Othello promotes Cassio, a nobleman One Michael Cassio, a Florentine ...That never set a squadron in the field,

From this statement we can tell that Iago despises Othello for this decision and that this is the action that sparks off the flame of hatred that Iago keeps feeding with his black thoughts and ideals, we also know now that Cassio is not a native of Venice but from Florence.

At the end of Act 1 we witness Iago giving us his first soliloquy, it is here that we discover that Iago is even more bitter towards Othello because he suspects that Othello might have slept with his wife And it is thought abroad that "twixt my sheets He has done my office.

We know as the audience that this is not true as Othello even from the very start is portrayed as an honest and kind man and to do something such as sleep with another mans wife would be unthinkable to him. Iago doesn't care about this and although he doesn't really believe that this is true he is more than willing to accept that it is "I know not if't be true, but I, for mere suspicion in that kind, will do, as if for surety." The fact that Iago is preparing to avenge himself regardless of whether the charge against Othello could be substantiated or not suggest that he does not really need a motive for his hate, or that if he has one it must lie deeper in his nature.

Iago's twisted, jealous mind, leads him to believe or want to believe that Michael Cassio has also slept with his wife and with his good looks, charm and his luck with women, also the fact that Cassio got the promotion and not him makes Iago totally jealous of Cassio and this is why he hates Cassio so much He hath a person and a smooth dispose to be suspected - framed to make a woman false.

In the first act of the play, Iago convinces Roderigo to help him arouse Brabantio, Desdemonas father, in order to tell him of the secret marriage between his daughter and Othello Even now, now, very now, an old black ram is tapping your white ewe.

Again we are shown of Iago's crude language and expressions; Iago also reduces Othello's image into that of an animal and in Elizabethan times this was the lowest of the low. Iago's usage of crude, racist language and sexual animalistic images would be shunned upon in Venice and he only uses them to arouse Brabantio's anger and get him to hate the "Moor," even further.

This method of manipulation is used by Iago as he knows how his words will affect others. He uses this method against Othello to convince Othello of Desdemonas affair and also uses it against other people during the length of the play.

Iago's manipulation of Othello can be explained by many different motives and ideals but none of them are necessarily true as, S.T. Coleridge once commented Iago is "the motive hunting of motiveless malignity." This manipulation and deception brings eventually the downfall of several of the main characters and the destruction of something noble and beautiful. He regularly insults Othello and Desdemona behind their backs usually in his soliloquy's but also he sometimes confers with Roderigo. In Act Scene III ago says Were they as prime as goats, as hot as monkeys, As salt as wolves in pride and fools as gross as ignorance made drunk

Here he compares Desdemona and Cassio to animals to bring into Othellos mind terrible and horrific images to make him angry. Iago is confident that his words will hit their target. Iago frequently uses racist terms.

In the presence of Roderigo and to anger Brabantio, he is often being racist. He refers to Othello as a Barbury horse, a type of Arab horse, which is not only racist but adding animalistic terms in as well.

In the play, the scene changes from Venice to Cyprus. Shakespeare uses Venice to symbolise truth and civility and, in contrast to this, the setting moves to Cyprus, bad, terrible and war-torn, and the setting for Othellos, similarly tumultuous trial. Whilst Othellos mind is at rest, the audience enjoys a Venetian setting, and when he becomes provoked and disturbed, we see the backcloth of Cyprus. The other characters in the play also seem pleased and content of the implications of being in Venice. Brabantio himself explains What tellst thou me of robbing? This is Venice; my house is not

a grange. (Act I Scene I)

Shakespeare again questions society by putting in his play what lots of people have once thought or carried and will continue to do. Here Iago is actually getting Othello to ask him what he is thinking, not directly telling him, but using his suspicion against him, making him ask what Iago thinks so that, cleverly, he cannot be blamed later on. He does this by telling him that he doesnt want to hear what he has to say. He does this, making Othellos suspicions work against him, making him ask and from there onwards puts concocted words into Othellos mind. The things he tells Othello are mostly to make his suspicions grow, but Iago does add the slightest of truths in to prove it a bit more She did deceive her father, marrying you..

Here he reminds Othello that Desdemona did deceive her father, so he could deceive again. While Iago is reminding and telling Othello what has happened, and what could be happening, he is adding language in which he is saying how a lady could fall for Cassio, building up Othellos fatal flaw - jealousy. Here we see a big change Othello turning into someone almost like Iago the audience see Othellos language change from gentlemanly to crude Damn her lewd minx...

Here is Othello uttering in Shakespearian times very bad words.

Shakespeare makes Othello change his language and thoughts just to show the audience how someone can easily change from mere suspicion, to fully believing what is not true. Then the last statement Othello says in the scene proving the point for the audience that Othello has changed O damn her, damn her. Come go with me apart, I will withdraw to furnish me with some swift means of death" However this line also proves that Othello still loves Desdemona as he wants to give her a quick and easy death in contrast with a slow and painful one, he doesn't want her to suffer.

In this play Iago was prepared to ruin and end peoples lives just through jealousy, and at the beginning of the play Iago's thoughts for revenge were not quite as tragic as the final result, but he doesn't care, he acts as if it is but a huge joke and finds it very funny (until his arrest) that he has deceived so many people and that nobody suspected him even remotely apart from Emila. In the en d Iago gained nothing except the destruction of all around him, which maybe is what he wanted; as he doesn't gain any money or power but perhaps this does not bother Iago very much as in his mind he believes he has achieved everything he tried to. His motives were small and his actions huge and horrific. So what most people would wonder and what Othello asked on the brink of death was Why hath thou thus ensnard my soul and body?

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Should distributive justice be conceived in terms of welfare, resources, or something else? If the latter, what and why?

Amartya Sen in Equality of What? states that moral philosophy has offered numerous answers to the question of 'equality of what?'. Frankfurt in Equality as a Moral Ideal argues that economic equality is not of a high moral importance as it is often argued to be, the point is that everyone has 'enough' rather than everyone having 'the same.' Then he continues, however, adding even though it is not a 'morally compelling social ideal' nevertheless equality is desirable. Dworkin defines equality as a 'envy-free' distribution of resources where the Pareto optimality principle suggests that no individual is willing to change his endowment. Meanwhile Anderson argues that current egalitarian thought focuses on compensating people for 'brute' luck for the sake of equality too much that it leaves out egalitarianism's political aims. Rawls, essentially, was the first one to develop the idea of equal distribution of resources in his theory of justice. In Rawlsian thinking the 'general conception of justice' relies on a main idea that resources should be distributed equally. Thus Rawls defends the idea of "equality of resources" while utilitarians have argued for the "equality of marginal utility", luck-egalitarians have made a case "equality of fortune". Nearly all views of justice require the equality of something whether be it resources, welfare, marginal utility, opportunity, liberty and so on. Both equality of welfare and resources have had criticism and objection. Distributive justice, then can be conceived in terms of equalising differences between people whether they are in resources of welfare. This is called luck egalitarianism, but even though luck egalitarianism answers to the objections of critics of equality of welfare and resources, it is the target of numerous objections itself.

Utilitarianism in its classical form can be argued to be an egalitarian theory since it makes a case of the maximizing of individual's marginal utility by equalizing marginal utility, and treats units of utility as equal. As a result the aggregate utility of people will increase, hence the greatest number of goods for the greatest number of people. But this would require granting the goods to those who will get the most utility out from it, thus ignoring individual differences that may effect one's consumption of utility. For example while considering two people; Goofy a 'utility monster' and Grumpy with a disability, utilitarianism would allocate the utility to Goofy who is easily pleased not to Grumpy who has a disability he needs to pay for thus is a less efficient generator of utility. Such and action would be unfair for the sake of justice. While utilitarianism takes utility from the inefficient generators, granting it to the efficient ones, it ignores individual differences which may end up in unjust allocation of utility.

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An alternative to equality of marginal utility is the equality of welfare since it seeks to bring the welfare of individuals and identical level. Although the idea of equality of welfare-or total utility equality as Sen calls it- is advantageous over utilitarianism since it will compensate the disabled individual in doing so it also will support those with expensive tastes just as it does the disabled.

John Rawls, in his A Theory of Justice, presents an alternative to both utilitarianism and equality of welfare; he aims 'to develop a systematic political theory that structures our different intuitions'. He suggests 'all social primary goods-liberty and opportunity, income and wealth, and the bases of self-respect-are to be distributed equally unless and unequal distribution of any or all of these goods is to the advantage of the least favoured.'(1710) Rawls argues that equality can be achieved not by removing factors that make people unequal but by removing those that make the disadvantaged less equal. He then continues by structuring a system of 'lexical priority'. Rawls's first principle proposes that 'each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.' His second principle proposes 'social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged and are attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.'

Kymlika suggests that Rawls almost grants those less well of with a 'veto over inequalities.' Rawls's theory of justice in this case will take those people with disabilities, "less efficient generators" of utility into consideration unlike utilitarianism but will also distinguish those less efficient generators with expensive tastes unlike the equality of welfare. Thus equality of resources will not compensate those with expensive tastes, however, will support those with disabilities.

Sen argues that 'just as utilitarianism pays no attention to the force of one's claims arising from one's disadvantage, leximin ignores claims arising from the intensity of one's needs.' He suggests that leximin has very little interest in to the number of people whose interest are ignored for the sake of the interests of the worst off. In this sense Sen claims that Rawls theory is insensitive to numbers; the precedence the worst off takes can cause millions of people to be worse off overall. Thus Sen continues 'if utilitarianism is attacked for its unconcern with inequalities of utility distribution, and leximin is criticized for its lack of interest in magnitudes of utility gains and losses, and even in the numbers involved, then isn't the right solution to choose some mixture of the two?'. Later he concludes that a combination of the two would still be 'confined to the box of 'welfarism' which he claims is inadequate.

Ronald Dworkin argues that Rawls difference principle theory is too endowment sensitive. He aims to develop a more 'ambition-sensitive' theory of his own. So as Rawls's theory was a response to utilitarianism, Dworkin's is a response to Rawls's. He argues that resources include 'initial endowments', i.e. illnesses, disabilities, talents, some of which can be positive endowments while some are negative. So Dworkin tries to reflect on the choices people make rather than their endowments; thus people's lives are lead through the choices they make not the circumstances they find themselves in. Dworkin's theory can be argued to be flawed, however, since this view ignores natural talents while recognizing social differences. People's preferences may not be sufficient to achieve certain goals if they lack some necessary talents that others possess naturally. Some preferences are voluntarily shaped while others are genetically or environmentally determined. In this same way people with disabilities, who work as hard as those without, may not be as successful due to the initial negative endowment they have started out with, Roemer further argues that once we acknowledge the fact about initial endowments that effect life, why not take into consideration internal differences such as certain brain chemicals.

Luck egalitarianism or equality of fortune takes 'the fundamental injustice to be the natural inequality in the distribution of luck'. Luck egalitarians seek to equalize differences whether they be in welfare or resources, so their aim is to offset the disadvantages people are not responsible for not the preferences they are responsible for. This is the 'luck-neutralizing' idea. Luck egalitarianism answers certain criticisms that were directed to both equality of welfare and resources. It will distinguish between the preferences one is responsible for so will distinguish between the disabled and the one with expensive tastes.

The critics of this view suggest that it is very hard to define luck. If someone has a natural talent for singing and they become a famous opera singer, it cannot be considered mere luck; the hard work has to be considered as well in addition to the family which was well off to support her education, or is it her luck that she was not born into a war-torn country? In the case of disabled people for example, luck-egalitarianism suggests that disabled people cannot be held responsible for their handicaps while people with expensive taste are responsible for their preferences. It can be argued that this is not the case; a baby born to a heroine addict mother will have an addiction to an expensive preference that he is not responsible for.

Luck egalitarianism is faced with a more objections of its own as well. The debate of whether people are ever responsible for anything is one; another is the 'religious believer objection' which argues that it is odd to compensate for guilt that is brought about by religious convictions. A third one is the 'dilemma objection' which argues that it is hard to compare "unluckiness".

It is hard to claim that distributive justice should be considered in terms of resources or welfare since both have received considerable objections. Another option is to regard justice in terms of luck egalitarianism. Luck egalitarianism has responded to some of the objections that were directed towards welfarism and equality of resources. But luck egalitarianism or equality of fortune also is subject to certain credible criticisms and objections of its own.

Bibliography

• Anderson, E.(1) 'What is the Point of Equality?', Ethics, Vol. pp.87-7

• Frankfurt, H.(187) 'Equality as a Moral Ideal', Ethics, Vol.8pp.1-4

• Hurley, S. Lecture Notes, Week 5

• Kymlika, W.(00) Conpemtorary Political Philosophy, NewYorkOxford University Press

• Sen, A.(000) 'Equality of What?' in Choice, Welfare and Measurement, USAUniversity of Michigan Press

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In a fifth grade classroom in 1, students were assigned to write a biographical Social Studies report about the third President of the United States. This report was to recount the great accomplishments and achievements that this President, and "founding father" of the United States made and contributed to society during the span of his life. Certainly as a fifth-grader, seeing the great Thomas Jefferson as anything less than an intelligent, honorable, noble man who contributed to building the United States of America would be absurd. Yet, years later the realization would soon set in (as Smith states in his text) that "Jefferson is the embodiment of the contradiction in the American democracy between its declaration of universal freedom and equality and its practice of slavery." On one hand, Jefferson would be demanding and fighting for the rights of man and on the other enslaving innocent humans.1

From Smith's lectures, it was concluded that there are three basic ways of defining such a contested concept like racism since it is a phenomenon that is highly debatable and disagreeable among people everywhere. The first of those attempts to define racism is one, which characterizes racism as an observable phenomenon. Smith defines it as consisting of "taking race in consideration in order to act negatively toward a particular person." But there are faulty links to this particular definition, since racism is argued to not always be so easily observable and not even necessarily an act that is negatively imposed on the race of the discriminated. The second definition is argued to be an immeasurable definition of racism based solely on what people think. This definition is more closely associated to Oxford's definition of racism as "the belief in the superiority of a particular race," and can be further connected to the idea of white supremacy. This is the idea that one would hold to, believing that every other race besides "white" or European races is inferior and can be closely associated with one's own ethnocentric beliefs. Lastly, the third and most acceptable definition of racism (for the purposes of this paper) is stated in Smith's words as "any decision or policy that is determined or implemented based on race." Racism is also stated in Smith's text as "involv[ing] the belief in the superiority, inherent or otherwise, of a particular group and that on this basis policies are implemented to subordinate sand control it."

It is from these definitions of racism and white supremacy that one can examine how Jefferson, one of the greatest men in American history exemplified and embodied these labels. Smith says in his text that

"[Jefferson] was a racist, individually and institutionally, in that he took the race of individual blacks into consideration so as to discriminate against them, and he supported, although ambivalently, the institution of slavery that subordinated blacks as a group."

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Presently, Jefferson can be linked closer to a model of contradiction rather than a role model for modern students studying political science. As Jefferson began to list the "truths to be self-evident" in declaring the thirteen United States of America as Independent, the words clash dramatically when contrasted to the very same words Jefferson authors in his Notes on the State of Virginia. The first two truths Jefferson prefaces this great American document are the very ones he contradicts by his life and words "that all men are created equal, [and] that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights." Smith's text quotes Rufus Choate in 1776 that "…Jefferson did not mean what he said. Rather the word men referred only to nobles and Englishmen who were no better than ordinary American freemen." How could Jefferson mean "all men" when his lifestyle and policies within the American government did not display this very truth he so demanded from the Britain's King?

Since the notion of white supremacy is solely defined as the idea or belief that all other races besides whites are inferior this belief system is hard to be accounted for, besides clear evidence and observable practices of people who hold to this. Primary sources such as written documents and statements would be most credible to account for in these circumstances. In Jefferson's case there is this tragic ebb of racism that is an outflow from his notion of white supremacy. The application of the terms racist and white supremacist can only be accurately affixed to our Third President based on his very own statements and lifestyle practices.

If men were indeed all created equal, and if Jefferson truly held to this "truth" we wouldn't find the many accounts in his Notes on the State of Virginia displaying his white supremacist views so blatantly. He may admit that there are "deep rooted prejudices entertained by the whites.." but he goes on to say that that are "real distinctions which nature has made [between whites and blacks]," first of which that being the difference "of colour." Jefferson claims that there is a "circumstance of superior beauty" implied to be found in whites, but how can that be so if men were truly all created equal? The account continues in its obviously white supremacist views concerning differences between blacks and whites. Somehow he comes to the conclusion that "numberless afflictions… are less felt and sooner forgotten with [blacks] and that their existence appears to participate more of sensation than reflection." One must conclude from these sayings that his ideas and analyses of blacks show a clear bias and belief that blacks were of an inferior race. He goes on to say that "in memory they are equal to the whites; in reason much inferior" [emphasis mine] and continues by quoting Euclid "in imagination they are dull, tasteless, and anomalous." He quickly explains the quote he thereby borrowed, and defensively adds "it would be unfair to follow them to Africa for this investigation" but sums up with "…we will consider them here, on the same stage with the whites" [emphasis mine]." Jefferson will only "consider" them to be on the "same stage" though the rest of his document clearly displays an opposing belief in regards to this statement. Whites are obviously the superior race in his eyes. Jefferson's tone in his Notes on the State of Virginia concerning blacks is one that would leave a bad taste in anyone's mouth. One could hardly read through sections of it and NOT conclude that Jefferson did indeed hold a white supremacist view and in the whole, he sums up a portion of his document with startling conclusions.

…let me add too, as a circumstance of great tenderness, where our conclusion would degrade a whole race of men from the rank in the scale of beings with their Creator may perhaps have given them… I advance it therefore as a suspicion only, that blacks whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances are inferior to the whites in the endowments both of body and mind. [emphasis mine]

Can his view and notion of white supremacy be any clearer than what he himself stated above? If all men had indeed been created equal, how would Jefferson's conclusion that "their Creator" gave them this position of being a "degraded race of men?"

As for making a decision or policy based on race, Jefferson was again the very embodiment of this notion towards the Africans of his time. From Smith's text we find that Jefferson condemned the King "for engaging in the African slave trade" and stated in the Declaration of Independence that

He [the King] has waged a cruel war against human nature itself, violating the most sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of distant people who never offended him, captivating and carrying them into slavery.

From his belief of white supremacy to the outflow and practice of racism, Jefferson engages himself in what he claims to be "violating the most sacred rights of life and liberty" by being an active participate of the slave trade too.

A great American leader, Thomas Jefferson gained his beautifully architected plantations as well as regional prominence in society at the hands and backs of the slaved they repressed on their many properties.1

He would too, disregard the policy or decision to end the enslavement of Africans in America because deeply rooted within him he still believed that whites were superior. He continues to exemplify this racist belief and act toward the Africans by his confession (found in the Notes on the State of Virginia) of being helpless to free slaves since

this unfortunate difference of colour, and perhaps of faculty, is a powerful obstacle to the emancipation of these people…. Many of their advocates, while they wish to vindicate the liberty of human nature, are anxious also to preserve its dignity and beauty. [emphasis mine]

Jefferson now realizes that this "inalienable right to freedom" wasn't "inalienable" at all. This difference, (perhaps a supremacist belief for that matter) would be more powerful than the "God" whom he claimed this right was endowed by, to all men. Little did he know that his white supremacist views would lead him to exemplify and embody racism to its fullest by deciding upon the fact that emancipating slaves wouldn't preserve human nature's "dignity and beauty." His white supremacist ideas would therefore directly contradict the first truth he stated that "all men are created equal" while the outflow of this belief in racism comes in direct conflict with the second truth he presents in that great document of American history, that "[all men] are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights." His Notes on the State of Virginia can't display these appropriate labels to Jefferson as a racist, white supremacist any better.

Nicknamed "Man of the People" we come to the conclusion that Jefferson was probably only a "man of the white people." Students who saw him as the great, Third President and author of the Declaration of Independence though never knowing that he was a walking contradiction of American democracy and "liberty," can now examine his very own words and re-examine the true make-up of this man. Their findings would reveal the beliefs he acted upon as a great leader of his time while finally being rightfully heralded for who he really was. Smith states, "Jefferson one of the great men of American history and one of the most enlightened men of his day" but in addition to these qualities, he can be confidently labeled a racist and white supremacist as well.

1 Jones, Jerry D. Who was Thomas Jefferson? Ohio, 1,

Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia. Virginia, 185 edited by J.W. Randolph

The World Book Encyclopedia, Vol.11; 167, Field Enterprises Educational Corporation

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Electroconvulsive therapy or ECT as it commonly referred to is defined as a "medical procedure in which a brief stimulant is used to induce a cerebral seizure under controlled conditions."(Webster's, 146.) This type of therapy has evolved over many, many years. It was actually first noticed by Hippocrates, that malaria-induced convulsions seemed to calm insane patients and give them a little relief. In A.D. 47 Scribonius Largus treated the headaches of the Roman Emperor with electric eels; this is the first known case of using any form of electric therapy to treat an ailment. Even though it didn't cause convulsions it's still important to the finding that electrical current is a useful treatment. In the sixteenth century a Jesuit missionary found that the people of Ethiopia believed that using an electric catfish was good to expel devils out of the human body, they found that it tormented the spirits as well as the subjects that these acts were performed on. This is relevant because people in those times believed that you were being occupied by demons or evil spirits, they didn't believe that there was something medically wrong with the person. Also during the middle ages physicians in Europe noted that high fevers that resulted from epidemics, occurring in patients in asylums, seemed to cause them to have a reduction in the psychological symptoms.

The first form of modern convulsive therapy was used by Dr. Manfred Sakel in 17. He introduced the insulin-induced coma, which produced convulsions. This was used to treat schizophrenic clients. There were several things wrong with Sakel's therapy. First and foremost, for the maximum effect of the therapy, at least thirty to fifty hours of coma had to be produced. This required these patients to have to have continuous nursing care as well as physicians very knowledgeable in administration of insulin in order to avoid irreversible coma, respiratory failure, and then finally circulatory failure; all of which cause death. Secondly, if and when the patient comes out of the coma they are said to have psychologically regressed as well as physically regressed. They are dependent on nurses for their nourishment, which they receive from feeding tubes that go directly to their stomachs. Finally, there was no antidote to stop bring the patient out of the coma once the treatments began. So this therapy was deemed too uncontrollable for this and the other major reasons that have been mentioned.

The next form of therapy that became popular was the use of Metrazol. This therapy was developed by Dr. Ladislaus von Meduna. He was the head of the Royal state mental hospital in Budapest Hungry. He observed that glial tissue which connects the cells of the cerebral cortex had thickened in patients with epilepsy. He then examined the brain of a person who had had schizophrenia and noticed that they had no glial structure. He then concluded that these conditions must be totally unrelated, and that the patient with epilepsy could not get schizophrenia. We now know that is false. He also concluded that if schizophrenic patients experienced convulsions they would be cured. He tested out his theory with the drug Metrazol, which is a synthetic form of camphor, but much less toxic. The drug two main faults; there was an extended period of time between the injection and the beginning of the convulsion and these convulsions once they begun were so severe that they often caused bone fractures. So this treatment eventually disappeared just as its predecessor had.

We finally come to Ugo Cerletti, who is the founder of Modern ECT. He noticed when autopsying patients who had died from epilepsy that there was a hardening of Ammons horn. He decided to find out if this was because of the epilepsy or the drugs that the patient was taking to control their symptoms. He unlike the other two doctors took that into consideration, which makes his theory even more reliable. He collaborated with another doctor Lucio Bini; they learned that hogs that were killed in the slaughter houses of Rome received a small amount of electrical shock before being slaughtered. They used a variety of animals to establish safe dosages of electricity that they would later use on patients. And on April 15, 18 the first electroshock therapy was performed on a schizophrenic client. It was seen as being very simplistic as well as less dangerous than the two previously mentioned therapies.

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L. B. Kalinowski was a young German doctor that had collaborated with Cerletti and Bini on developing ECT. In 1 he began to travel all over the world promoting and advertising "shock therapy". The researchers that adopted the methods saw that it had more of an effect on affective disorders. They saw that 0% of the patients they used the ECT on experienced very minimal or no more symptoms. Soon doctors who had adopted the treatment found that giving light anesthetics and muscle relaxants decreased the incidence of convulsion related injuries such as bone fractures.

Sadly during the 160's and 170's the use of ECT decreased. It was primarily due to pharmacologic advancements in the psychiatry world, as well as reports that it was being misused by healthcare professionals. Ken Kesey wrote a very controversial book on the treatment of patients who were committed in Psychiatric hospitals. The book was called "One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest". It was later made into a movie starring Jack Nicholson. He depicts the brutality and ignorance in asylums during a very dark period of psychiatric medicine. The main reference to Shock Therapy comes when the patients broke quite a few major rules one night. They broke into the nurses' station, took cigarettes, smuggled in two women, and were out of their rooms when they were not supposed to be. They were punished with the administration of shock therapy. This is the major reason that the use of shock therapy decreased. The people we trusted to take care of our loved ones were abusing a very dangerous and sometimes fatal treatment. This movie opened up people's eyes and people began to come out and say that they had experienced the same thing as the characters in the book, punishment by shock therapy. There were a series of legal actions involving the abuses of shock therapy in the years following the release of the movie.

There are several psychological theories to why electricity works well as a treatment for some mental illnesses; one theory states that the patient is so fearful of the treatment that he/she "escapes into health" rather than face another treatment. Another proposes that the treatment satisfies the patients need for punishment. But if this were true, the beatings and torture that those in the Middle Ages endured would have cured their illnesses. Finally the last major theory states that the patient releases all of his/her pent up aggression and hostility through the violent muscular convulsions; but if this were true than exercising to the point of exhaustion would have the same effect.

There are also several other recent theories that attempt to explain how ECT works. The Neurotransmitter theory suggests that ECT works like anti-depressant medication that changes the way receptors receive mood related chemicals like serotonin. The Anti-convulsant theory proposes that the induced seizures teach the brain to resist seizures. This effort to inhibit seizures dampens abnormally active brain circuits, stabilizing mood. The Neuroendocrine theory hypothesizes that the seizure causes the hypothalamus, part of the brain that regulates water balance and body temperature, to release chemicals that cause changes throughout the body. Brain scans have shown that ECT affects the brain by increasing metabolism and blood flow to certain parts of the brain; however, it is not known how this increased blood flow alleviates depression. Another theory suggests that this therapy damages the brain, causing memory loss and disorientation that creates a temporary illusion that problems are gone. (Electroconvulsive therapy, 156.)

The modern day procedure is usually performed in an operating room in a hospital. The patient is sedated and given muscle relaxants to reduce the risk of injuries from the convulsions. The actual treatment consists of passing seventy to one hundred and thirty volts through electrodes attached to the patients head. This is done for a very short period of time, only one tenth to five tenths of a second. The usually treatment regime consists of three treatments a week; and anywhere from five treatments to thirty five treatments is considered adequate. The production of bilaterally generalized seizures that lasts a minimum of twenty five seconds is the goal for one treatment session. And even if the patient has a seizure for the minimum amount of time, it does not guarantee a good response.

There is a degree of amnesia for each patient that undergoes the treatment. This is good because they do not remember the treatment, so therefore they do not fear it, but this is also bad because some patients develop anxiety from the loss of memory. Immediately following the procedure there is a period of confusion. It can take up to ten minutes for the patient to remember who he or she is and what day it is. After the initial confusion, there is a period of retrograde amnesia, or forgetting events that happened days, weeks, or months before the treatment. This memory loss can last for up to several weeks after the last treatment. For this reason doctors advise patients to avoid driving or doing any form of business during this "convalescence time". There is also a period of anterograde amnesia, or forgetting post seizure events. Less than one percent of patients experience severe memory loss. Studies show that ECT does not permanently affect the Whatever brain changes do occur is reversible, and everlasting brain damage is very rare.

It needs to be understood that ECT is not a cure for depressive disorders, but a treatment that has the means to control the symptoms to where they are almost unseen. The benefits of the treatment are clearly beneficial; they outweigh the potential risk of permanent brain damage as well as the amnesia that follows. ECT is the only somatic therapy from the 10's that is still around today.

Works Cited

Abrams, Richard. Electroconvulsive Therapy. Oakland New Harbinger Press, 00.

Alexander, Franz G. and Sheldon T. Selesnick, M.D.. The History of Psychiatry. New York Harper & Row Publishers, 166. 7-85.

Hamburg, David A. and H. Keith H. Brodie. American Handbook of Modern Psychiatry, nd Edition, New York Basic Books, Inc., 175. 514-516.

Kesey, Ken. One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest. New York Viking Press, 16.

Sullivan, Henry Stack. Concepts of Modern Psychiatry. New York W.W. Norton & Company, 15. 1-0.

Webster's College Dictionary. Springfield, MA Merriam Webster, 000.146.

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"To what extent do Martin's negative experiences of love, push him into a state of mental and physical ill-health?"

The novel, "A Severed Head" by Iris Murdoch, is heavily laden with upsetting incidents concerning love. Most of these revolve around the main character Martin, and proceed through the course of the novel to further disintegrate his mental and physical state. Martin's sturdy marriage to his beautiful wife is torn into pieces, his secret affair is exposed and he falls madly in love with someone ever unlikely. This Specialist Study attempts to asses the main factors which eventually push the main character into a state of depression and poor well-being.

Martin, a forty-one year old Businessman, sits alone in his study one night, contemplating the perfect situation he is in. A beautiful, understanding wife was his as was his adoring Mistress, Georgie. Unbeknown to Martin however, his wonderful life was about to come crashing down all around him. His wife, Antonia, out of the blue asks for a divorce. Thus, the first tremendous blow to his world of perfection. His wife, he was about to realise, had not been as perfect, nor as faithful as she had him believe… For Antonia was also having an affair. And to add to matters, the chosen man that was to steal dear Antonia was in fact Martin's good friend Palmer. These facts to begin with were hard for Martin to understand. His first feelings started to directly mimic those of Antonia's, as his "angel" was "so shaken, and this in itself was dreadful". As she continued to speak, and convince Martin her feelings for Palmer were true, and that she did indeed desire a divorce, it started to sink in to Martins perhaps pushed by Antonia's own sadness and fear as he felt the "first light touch of a nightmarish terror". Martins feelings here are foreshadowed of his feelings in the rest of the novel also, as they tend to mirror Antonia's. This perhaps emphasises the closeness of their relationship, as she continually tries to be there for Martin.

To help himself deal with this blow, Martins takes Antonia's advice and turns to his good friend and psycho analysist who perhaps ironically, is Palmer. Martin half thinks that Palmer will be able to sort out his thoughts, being the man behind this ghastly scenario… although that is not entirely how things turn out. Palmer greets and treats Martin in a civilised way and with respect, thinking Martin is not annoyed or bitter in any way. However Martin does feel resentful to both his wife for leaving him, and his good friend for taking her away from him. These feelings he is experiencing

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Cannot be overwritten and will not go away, yet he cannot express them as he wishes as Antonia and Palmer try to "coax [him] along to accept an unpleasant truth in a civilised and rational way". They think this procedure healthy and normal, but inside Martin's head next to the "infernal headache", there are feelings that should have been vented and bottling them up could perhaps add to the mounting pressure he is under leading up to his nervous breakdown.

Christmas in London comes and goes for Martin. He spends it with his brother, Alexander and his wife, Rosemary in their large country house trying to sort out what he is feeling. At the end of the time away, he scribes a letter to his Mistress, Georgie. He tries to tell her his feelings, although his thoughts are uncertain. He "is suffering from shock… [He] feels scarcely sane and nothing seems solid any longer" to him. Martin convinces himself that Georgie will react horribly, yet later reflects on himself "I must have been in some irrational state of fear to have been so nervous about Georgie's reactions."

As Martin tries to deal with facts as they stand, he is also "tormented by physical desire for [Antonia]". In a moment of sadness, some realisation shone upon him. He understands that now, Antonia and him are "two new and different people". Through the short time of unpleasant happenings, they have learned a lot about each other and seen their differences in a new light. A huge weight is dropped onto Martin's shoulders as the glimmer of hope was holding onto is stomped out as he realises his marriage cannot be reconciled. "The scene with Antonia had left [him] stiff and weary, as if [he] had been beaten."

Martin decides it is time to come to terms with things how they are, and thinks the best way to do this is to introduce Georgie to a place he has lived his life away from her. Antonia and Martin's house. He feels it will be best to break down at least one secrecy barrier and let Georgie try to deal with Martin's other life while not with her. This plan backfires horrifically. While the couple are standing in the hallway, the door goes and in walks who they think is Antonia. Martin immediately reacts on instinct and pushes Georgie out into the back garden. Georgie feels abandoned and makes sure she is un-contactable for the next full day. Martin feels more hurt and cross with her that anxious at her whereabouts. The next Martin hears of what Georgie has been doing during this period is when he is sitting in Palmer and Antonia's living room. He receives a cold stare from one direction and a blank expression from the other. At once it is obvious that Palmer shatters the silence with the line, "Martin, we have found out about Georgie Hands". This statement makes Martin feel sick with worry and anxiousness. Georgie had spoken to Honor Klein, the half sister of Palmer. Everything was now out in the open. What once had been a treasured secret, part of what made the relations with his Mistress have a spark and charm, was now exposed prematurely to the harsh light. Martin "chiefly felt… overwhelming annihilating guilt" for his deceitfulness to Antonia over the years. Antonia and Palmer, again try to deal with things in a rational civilised manner, telling Martin they are there for him, and constantly trying to understand. This feels slightly crowding to Martin as he was also "shivering all over and [finding] it very difficult to breathe" as the situation he finds himself in begins to take a physical toll on his body, already racked with severe asthma. His feelings on Georgie though this period are also rocky as, "the blow of discovery had at least crippled if not killed [his] love for her".

One thing after another seem to keep falling on Martin as Georgie once described him as "a sort of vacuum into with interference falls". With one of Martin's loves forced to be reduced and the other forcibly broken, it seems only natural that love would find another way to get to him, and indeed it would, however un-intended by Martin himself. Honor Klein, Palmer's half-sister is the victim which Martin's subconscious chooses for his undoubted zealous love for her. At the Palmer residence, apart from disturbance in the cellar, is where Honor and Martin first encounter each other with remembrance. It is here, while Martin does not even himself realise his new love, that he drunkenly attacks Honor. He pounces on her and she falls to the floor, repeatedly being punched by Martin. After the third punch, he realises his drunken slandering, and cannot even remember her name when she runs off to call her back. The next day, Martin writes letter, the three drafts of which, he tries to choose the best one to send her. He explains to her his obscene drunkenness and tries incandescently to apologise for the disgusting state he was in. He explains that "[He] is feeling thoroughly persecuted at present… I was particularly strained." As Martin meagrely tries to justify his insane actions, his ill health is taking many turns for the worst. Martin's "continual tension and expectancy affected [him] positively with a physical ache. In addition [he] felt sick, unable to eat." His physical state was driven mainly by his mental attitude, as is apparent when he finds his "temperature exasperatingly normal". He cannot lie comfortably nor find anything to do when he was up. He found it impossible to read and a trip to the cinema almost reduced him to tears. His well-being was seriously starting to disintegrate.

After careful consideration on Martin's part, he decides to confront Honor with his feelings. A trip to her house is required and so is executed. On knocking the door and receiving no answer he proceeds to transcend the stairs, and up to her bedroom where again, he receives no answer to his knock. Martin, perhaps un-thoughtfully, opens the bedroom door, and is greeted by a sight that is to further eat away at his remaining healthy mental state. Palmer and Honor are in bed together. This view of incest shocks and disturbs Martin deeply, as he is also faced now with the knowledge that his wife has been a victim of incestual adultery. Martin at this point feels, "dazed and in great pain". A shiver of "violent amazement not distinguishable from horror; and [he] felt as though in physical pain" as he contemplates the view he just unintentionally interrupted. Martin's health is surely and steadily disintegrating before his eyes.

Palmer decides to come clean with Antonia and thus leaving her in as much emotional turmoil as Martin himself. During this period of total mental exhaustion while their experiences and feelings again directly mirror each other, they seek a sort of comfort in each others company. For a brief period, things almost reverted back to normal for this bizarre husband and wife as neither Palmer nor Georgie's name was mentioned during the time they spent living together again. This state does not console the couple forever though, as Martin has unquestioned feelings for Honor Klein. He is in fact, utterly and desperately in love with her.

Alexander, Martin's dear brother, the brother that stole all Martin's girlfriends in the past, lives true to form. Antonia winds up with him, claiming that their feelings for each other have stretched back to before her marriage to Martin. Martin, now distraught, has to deal with another blow. Georgie has fallen in love with Palmer, and the pair run away to the U.S. Martin, at this point, one would feel he should be in a state of utter, consuming depression, but however he reacts quite the opposite. With his previous lovers tied up in love, Martin can now with a clear conscious, confront Honor with his feelings. All the ill health Martin suffered and endured, he starts to believe was because of the new found deep love for Honor. And now, with all his problems behind him, or leaving the country Martin can concentrate on the one he really wants. The book comes to a dramatic end, Martin shaking out of happiness as he realises there might just be a glimmer hope for Honor and him.

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