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Write About the ways in which Harper Lee creates tension, drama and humour in chapter 15 of To Kill A Mockingbird.

The atmosphere created in chapter 15 is tense and dramatic from the first paragraph. The introductory paragraph to chapter 15 ends with "A nightmare was upon us." This obviously tells us that an event of an unpleasant nature is yet to occur. The second paragraph starts with "It began one evening." This tells us that the nightmare is beginning, and builds us up for the chapter. Harper Lee uses various methods to create drama, tension and humour in chapter 15, many of which are discussed below.

The chapter begins by setting a normal scene. Harper Lee perhaps does this to contrast the abnormalities of the days following. Harper Lee has knows that the week may have been normal to Scout, but to the reader it is not, so the setting is described in much detail in order to bring the scene alive and present a vivid contrast. This builds us up for the drama to come, and also encourages us to connect with the characters of the book, and their habits. Harper Lee does this by presenting us with the children's familiarities, showing us that they were average children who occupied their time with typical activities such as building a ladder for the tree house. She donates humour to the paragraph by describing to us Dill's idea of placing a trail of lemon drops outside Boo Radley's house, causing him to emerge and follow the trail like an ant. Scout describes this as a 'foolproof plan' which may be sincere through Scout's eyes, but we know that Harper Lee is being ironic, and using the children's innocent and naïve perspectives of the world to bring humour. The children's lack of understanding often adds humour in To Kill A Mockingbird, but their observations and understandings of Maycomb society present a strong contrast to this.

There follows a knock at the door which shatters the normality of the evening, and life, and things never really return to the placid state described at the start of the chapter. Scout's understanding of Maycomb society is then presented with "In Maycomb, grown men stood outside in the front yard for two reasons death and politics." This observation is both humorous and extraordinary, for she is only young. What is humorous is about Scout's comment is not the observation itself, but Maycomb's ritualistic behaviour. This also tells us about the simple way of life in Maycomb and the bizarre formalities of Maycomb society. The arrival of the men in Scout's front yard informs us that we are at the start of the 'nightmare.' It also creates tension as we are told the men could only be there for two bad reasons as it would seem that politics doesn't mean they are there to discuss political parties, but to debate and argue, both of which are naturally very dramatic. Even Aunt Alexander with her formal ideas on the way the family should behave doesn't maintain her protest at Jem being hunched up at the window straining to hear. She is also inquisitive, she's a natural born gossip and wants in on the drama. Naturally, with life being so simplistic, and basically, boring in Maycomb, it is no wonder the community choose to cling so strongly to every ounce of drama.

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Tension is built up as the men describe what another group of men is planning to do after Tom Robinson's transfer to Maycomb County Jail. Atticus's dangerous question, "Do you really think so?" puts the adult situation into the child's perspective as Scout familiarises the comment, drawing it into her own world. This is yet another example of Scout's observation skills, and also her understanding of her father. The phrase 'dangerous' is used to creates tension, but then Scout connects it with chess and suddenly the word looses its power.

On departure the men jump when Jem yells which shows they are tense, and this feeling is passed through to the reader. They laugh it off, which is yet another sign of tension. Tense reactions create tension within the scene. Jem is also clearly nervous because he reacts so dramatically to the phone ringing. Later Jem says he is scared, which contradicts his attempts at being manly and mature describer earlier in the book "Jem in his old age had taken to his room with a stack of football magazines." Perhaps he also feels he is questioning his masculinity by saying he is scared, which is why he is not prepared to comment on his emotion. He also is clearly worried about Atticus who has remained calm throughout the drama of the evening. This reduces tension in the scene but also tells us about Atticus's character.

On page 15 tension builds up as Scout describes the odd behaviour of the locals of Maycomb, and their reaction to the latest drama "Something must have been up to haul Mr Underwood out." Scout goes on to describe the 'fake peace' of Sunday afternoon as everyone pretends to be normal. The adults attempts to behave normal and cover the tension simply add to it.

On page 154, Scout, so used to the rigid daily routines of life in Maycomb, comments on the many abnormalities in Atticus's behaviour. Many would seem quite normal to the reader were it not for the fact that Scout conveys how surprised she is by Atticus's actions by describing the norm. These abnormalities include Atticus taking the car, and a light bulb. Tension rises as we begin to wonder what he could do with such objects. Scout's observation and sense of routine is also shown when she comments on Jem's abnormal behaviour; "his go-to-bed noises were so familiar to me that I knocked on his door." The peculiar behaviour described to use builds up both anticipation and curiosity.

As the children go out in search of Atticus Jem says he's "just got this feeling (that something may be wrong)." 'Gut feelings' in books are usually based on an event yet to come, and a typical way of telling us something is about to happen. This adds tension. The vivid description of Maycomb Jail (page 156) adds drama as we picture it in our imagination. The children make another peculiarly observant discovery; "That's funny jail doesn't have an outside light," again, adding to the tension by suggesting that all is not as it should be. The image created by the description of the men arriving in cars and getting out is also very dramatic, as gangs are naturally threatening and we know that Atticus is in a particularly vulnerable situation. He is obviously expecting them though, and this time we do not need to be told that this is abnormal behaviour for a Sunday night.

Scout sees the comic aspect of the men's attempts to speak in whisper so as not to wake up the man they intend to harm. It is not left to the reader to spot this for themselves, so Harper Lee obviously wants attention to be drawn towards this factor. She has a deep understanding of the way of life in the South, and is commenting on how their morals sometimes ironically clash with one another; they see nothing wrong with lynching Tom Robinson, but a man should never be woken from his sleep. Either that or they just quieten down as a sign of respect for Atticus.

In the situation the chapter has been building up for, Atticus is relying on Heck Tate's presence but the gang tell him that Tate won't be out of the woods till morning. This builds up tension, although we are by now so familiar with Atticus's character that we know he would not be externally reacting to this sensation; "My father's voice was the same." We know that inside he would be starting to panic. We connect with this panic, and feel for his safety, as Atticus is a character we have grown to appreciate through the eyes of Scout. Heck Tate's absence 'changes things' which tells us that the gang are planning to act out of the law, which provides Atticus with another chance to use his slightly patronising 'dangerous question.' We are tense as we are feeling Atticus's fear. He is in a particularly vulnerable situation with gang of aggressive men. This dramatic and tense scene worries the reader as, although assured that Atticus is respected and clearly a lot more intelligent than the gang of men, we are not sure how he is going to escape the confrontation for we know he will not leave Tom Robinson.

As Scout bursts into the circle, Atticus makes his first obvious external display of fear; "a flash of plain fear went though Atticus's eyes." Even Atticus, the most calm and reasonable man in Maycomb, is beginning to crumble. He is described as trembling, but continues to act calmly. We know he is worried but using his confidence and sense of reason to cover it. As we sense the characters we identify with becoming more and more scared, we too feel their fear and grow more tense. Harper Lee's skills as a writer are shown in her ability to make us feel her characters' emotions.

On page 158, the way Scout protects her brother is simply delightful. She has such a pure view of right and wrong, it can be both amusing and heart warming. These 'burly' men are all described as being not local and here simply for trouble. They seem aggressive as they say to Jem (influencing Scout's attack) "'I'll send you home,' the burly man said, and grabbed Jem roughly by the collar." This first act of violence adds to the drama and tension exerted throughout the chapter.

Scout is clearly a character who acts upon what feels right. This is obvious when she says "I was getting a bit tired of (Jem and Atticus arguing) that." She puts things into perspective as how they relate to her. Her self-centred comment reminds us that's he is a child, but is also quite amusing. In a bout of boredom she looks round the crowd who are wearing their clothes as if to let people know they were meaning business (they had their shirt collars up and their cuffs done up). She interprets the way they are dressed as relating to the fact that "they must be cold-natured." This obviously adds humour, which again is brought about by Scout's naïve and innocent beliefs.

In the midst of this highly tense and dramatic situation in which everyone is on edge, Scout pipes up with "Hey Mr Cunningham, how's your entailment going?" This comment seems so totally out of place it is quite humorous, though perfectly displays Scout's lack of understanding of the situation she is the centre of. Scout not disheartened by Mr Cunningham's attempt to ignore her, though made nervous by the silence (silence sometimes representing a nervous or tense atmosphere) persists making idle chit-chat. What follows is again both humorous and heart warming as she gradually draws him out of the group, turning him back into a responsive individual. She effectively rolls up his shirtsleeves. Though Scout is ashamed of what she has done, and embarrassed, Atticus and Jem are amazed for she, a 10 year old girl, has turned a group of aggressive thugs into the individual members of the community who live and work amongst Atticus and his family. She reminds Mr Cunningham of what Atticus has done for him in the past, and I think Mr Cunningham is ashamed of his ungrateful behaviour.

Chapter 15 is full of tension, drama, and humour, largely provided by the unique child's perspective of the world. Harper Lee gets into the mind of Scout to the extent of which every description feels authentic, yet she still manages to reach the reader on a more mature level through the words of Scout. This becomes clear when we begin to read between the lines of Scout's words. Sometimes it is hard to differentiate between what is being said by Scout, and what is being said by Harper Lee, but that just adds to the depth of the book. Scout's perspective of Maycomb is refreshing, entertaining and heart felt, providing the reader with a truly beautifully written chapter, and book.

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Literature's Affects on Love

Literature has a profound affect on societal views. Throughout history women have been susceptible to the influence of written word. Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac and Flaubert's Madame Bovary illustrate how literature has shaped women's views of how love should exist. "Flaubert depicts the trivial but persuasive ways in which a powerful style of being comes to affect the expectations which the most unremarkable people have of life" (Bersani xiii). Emma's illusions of love are attributed to the novels and fashion magazines she thrives upon. Roxanne's love for Christian is fueled by Cyrano's love letters. Without these mediums, their love is weakened. Each character is dependent on a romantic view of love rather than the truth of reality until it is too late. Roxanne's reality is that her poetic lover is not Christian, and she has inadvertently fallen for Cyrano. Emma's reality is that Charles's love is pure and real but not satisfactory enough for her idealistic needs. Love is a complicated emotion when literature becomes the central underlying force.

"Literature is judged by its success; and the simplified forms in which it effectively penetrates ordinary social life finally provide even the standards it has to live up to" (Bersani xiv). In both literary examples, society is influenced by the arts and literature. Throughout the seventeenth century excessive romanticism affects ordinary life. France is at the height of culture and eloquence is highly regarded. It is more fashionable to express emotions poetically rather than bluntly. Cyrano de Bergerac takes place during this refined time period. Roxanne's views of love are dependent on this element of romance. Her love is strengthened and weakened by it alone. During Emma's lifetime literature is also extremely influential. Fairytale romances and thrilling novels captivate its victims. These storylines become norms of society, and Emma's happiness in life depends on them. Literature corrupts the hearts and minds of its followers and causes disillusioned happiness with fatal disappointment.

Emma has an extreme problem with reality. She lives in the imaginative future rather than the dreary present. "I hate commonplace heroes and lukewarm emotions, the kind you find in real life" (Flaubert 7). She is always looking for something that is not there while dreaming of how things ought to be. Emma bases her ideas of love on Parisian fashion the center of French thought. She indulges in fashion magazines, gossip columns, romance novels, and luxury keepsakes. She often confuses elegance and luxury with love and refined feelings. "Love, she felt, ought to come all at once, with great thunderclaps and flashes of lightening; it was like a storm bursting upon life from the sky, uprooting it, overwhelming the will and sweeping the heart into the abyss" (Flaubert 87). These ideas are rooted in literature and the novels she reads constantly. To Emma, women are successful from love affairs, and her attraction lay upon men famous for their numerous mistresses rather than her faithful and loving husband, Charles.

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Emma is convinced that had she not married Charles, her life would be full of passion, rapture, and bliss. These three characteristics are continuous underlying themes found in literary works. "Why did I ever get married?" she exclaims (Flaubert 8). Had she not married Charles, "her husband might have been handsome, witty, distinguished and attractive" like the men in her novels and magazines (Flaubert 8). Charles is considered an uncultured, mediocre, but loving husband. Emma, his second wife, is his first happiness and he claims that although he loves her deeply, he could never love her enough. Emma, on the other hand, desires more than ordinary love and is annoyed by Charles's dullness. Emma often wonders how she could have "imagined that such a man could amount to something, as though she hadn't clearly seen his mediocrity twenty times before" (Flaubert 15). She feels that Charles is a poor, weak man. She looks for Charles only when she is "eager to have something more solid than love to lean on" (Flaubert 150). Emma believes a man should know all the mysteries of life, but nothing is "extraordinary" about Charles's love or education (Flaubert 7). "Before her marriage she had believed herself to be in love…she tried to find out exactly what was meant in love by the words 'bliss', 'passion', and 'rapture', which had seemed so beautiful to her in books" (Flaubert -0). Emma's love could have looked towards Charles had it not been corrupted by fairytale Parisian stories of love.

Emma is described as being "the amorous heroine of all novels and plays" (Flaubert ). She searches for love in all the wrong places, and believes she has found real love in each disillusioned relationship. She dreams of luxury and love that she experienced at the ball. "Some of the details vanished, but her longing remained" (Flaubert 48). This longing causes her to seek out lovers. Emma's first love interest, Leon, has the same illusions as Emma. He is poetic and imaginative. He believes "it is so dull to spend your life rooted to one spot" and talks of places he has read about but never seen (Flaubert 67). Emma regards such ideas as thrilling. "You have the feeling that you are living in their costumes" (Flaubert 7). Emma's second love interest is Rodolphe. Emma felt "she was entering a marvelous realm in which everything would be passion, ecstasy and rapture…at last she was going to possess the joys of love" (Flaubert 140). Emma is again incorrect. Each of her love affairs excite her because they are models of society discussed in books and popular gossip columns. But such ideas never allow her happiness for an extended period of time because neither relationship can withstand the high expectations devised by literature. Neither of her lovers can continue the poetic and vibrant love letters nor afford the constant luxurious lifestyle. When these elements of her romantic love die away, so does her love, and she finds herself once again unhappy. Even Rodolphe claims "the most exaggerated speeches usually hid the weakest feelings" (Flaubert 165). Literature has created an unobtainable image of love, and Emma dreams the impossible dream based on such ideas.

Roxanne, unlike Emma, may have had both feet on the ground, but her head is not always out of the clouds. Roxanne is a frivolous, intellectual beauty. All men want her, but Roxanne's heart falls for Christian, whose only attribute is that he is handsome. He even admits, "I'm one of those men who don't know how to speak of love" (Rostand 6). Although it is his physical features that capture Roxanne's glance, it demands a poetic voice to keep her interest. This is ultimately why Christian agrees to cooperate with Cyrano. Cyrano exclaims, "Lend me your conquering physical charm, and together we'll form a romantic hero!" (Rostand 6). Christian needs a voice to speak of love and Cyrano needs someone to express his soul with a handsome physique. If society had not have been influenced by the poetic and soulful verse of the times, Christian would not need an expert poet to express his love. His handsome physique and a simple 'I love you' could have sufficed.

Roxanne is completely dependent on eloquent, figurative language, both spoken and written. Christian confesses his love, but that is not enough to please Roxanne. His lack of poetic verse turns her heart away from him. She exclaims, "You're giving me water when I expected cream!" (Rostand 114). She thinks he is becoming a fool. "It displeases me! As it would displease me if you became ugly" (Rostand 115). Roxanne uses physical appearance and language as an indicator of a person's character. Roxanne believes that because Christian does not talk eloquently, but rather bluntly about his feelings for her, that he does not love her anymore. Only when Cyrano speaks for Christian does she regain interest. This absurd notion is a reference to the importance of literature at the time.

Cyrano's daily love letters to Roxanne ultimately drive her to the battlefields of the war. She tells Christian, "It's your fault if I'm in danger your letters made me lose my reason!" (Rostand 171). Cyrano has warned Roxanne that elegant language has no place in true love but to keep her loving Christian, he has had to continue the vibrant love letters. "It's only a game, and those who love will suffer if they play too long…there comes a time…when they feel a noble love inside themselves that's saddened by every grandiloquent word they say" (Rostand 1). Roxanne has adored Christian ever since she heard his 'different' voice beneath her window and through the letters that express this 'different' voice. Unbeknownst to her, this voice is Cyrano's, and at the time of Christian's death she has shed her frivolous views and confesses, "I now love you for your soul alone" (Rostand 17). Christian's physical attributes no longer appease her heart. Only the refined voice and poetic nature of his letters keep her loving him. The romantic love letters have caused her to change. Christian and Roxanne's relationship is tragically bounded by Cyrano's soul.

Literature has distorted the image of love in everyday ordinary life. It has characterized love by mystery, thrill, extraordinary emotions, and vivid refined language. Emma and Roxanne have been fooled by love letters. Emma is further demised by romance novels. Each character envisions a fantasy love where she will be serenaded by her lover, and when reality interrupts, disappointment results. Both Emma and Roxanne learn truth at the fatal end, having spent years shadowed by societal romance. On Emma's dying breaths she realizes that Charles's love is pure and faithful unlike her disappointing lovers. "In his eyes she saw a love such as she had never seen before" (Flaubert 74). But it is too late to reverse events and reclaim lost moments. For Charles, "he felt his whole being collapsing in despair at the thought of having to lose her just when she was confessing more love for him than ever before" (Flaubert 75). Roxanne also came to a similar realization of truth. Cyrano finds her still mourning and faithful to Christian years after his death. She carries the last letter like a holy relic over her heart. Roxanne recalls, "Sometimes it seems to me that he's not really dead" (Rostand 18). The letter has Christian's blood, but Cyrano's tear as well. Roxanne realizes all too late that Cyrano is the one whose words she fell in love with. Her beliefs have fooled her and she quickly says that she loves Cyrano as he is at death's door. Her love fluctuates depending on whom she believes has written and spoken such eloquent romance. Roxanne and Emma learn truth too late, corrupted by literature's plot.

Literature is a powerful force with the ability to influence who and how ordinary people love. Society has been shaped by poets and creators of thrilling romantic tales. Ordinary people, especially women, are easily influenced and persuaded to adapt views of love from fashion articles and love letters. Roxanne and Emma, women from different societal eras, both become victimized by this false love and suffer when love's truth reveals itself during life's final hour. Literature corrupts society, corrupts weak hearts, and in turn, inevitably and brutally claims victims.

Bersani, Leo. Introduction. Madame Bovary. By Flaubert, Gustave. Trans. Lowell Bair. New York Bantam, 181.

Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary. Trans. Lowell Bair. New York Bantam, 181.

Rostand, Edmond. Cyrano de Bergerac. Trans. Lowell Bair. New York Penguin, 17.

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"Persons attempting to find a motive in this narrative will be prosecuted; persons attempting to find a moral will be banished; persons attempting to find a plot in it will be shot - By Order of the Author," (1) reads the "Notice" before The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain. Twain claims that he wrote the entire novel purely as an adventure story, and had no intention of creating a deeper statement about the human condition. On the contrary, Twain creates an insight into humanity that the reader hardly expects from the author's impractical notice. He does this by using the two main characters in the novel, Huck Finn, an uneducated boy running away from civilization and Jim, the runaway slave. As these two misfits float down the Mississippi River on a raft, Twain uses the character of Jim and his interactions with others to defy the white perception of the Negro and to ultimately demonstrate his place in American society. Twain does this by showing how Jim does not form to the mold of the stereotypical slave, has real emotions just like anyone else and is a metaphor for the Negro's social standing.

In the beginning of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain introduces Jim by describing the stereotypical Negro. Jim represents the ignorance and superstitions that most white believed to be the slaves persona. As seen through the eyes of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn, Jim personifies the stereotypical characteristics of the carefree and often ridiculous Negro. This is demonstrated when the reader first meets Jim, as Tom and Huck attempt to sneak out of the house. Jim, hears the boys moving and decides to wait until he hears it again but promptly falls asleep. Tom moves Jim's hat by hanging it a tree limb. "Afterward Jim said the witches bewitched him and put him in a trance, and rode him all over the state, and then set him under the trees again, and hung his hat on a limb to show who done it," (6). This ignorant and illogical explanation illustrates the stereotypical white opinion of Negroes in America. This opinion was further enforced throughout the nineteenth century by so-called scientific evidence that showed that a Negro's anatomy was better suited for manual labor than a white man's, allowing slave owners and non-slave owners alike to justify the necessity of slavery. Later in the novel, Huck goes to Jim for help in conjuring the future. The reader sees the ridiculous side of the typical Slave classification. Jim's prized possession is a hairball that was taken from the stomach of an ox. "He said there was a spirit inside of it, and it knowed everything," (17). Jim rolls the hairball around the floor a bit and then claims to see into Huck's future. After this incident, Jim not only seems ignorant, but absurd, for using a hairball as an oracle, further showing the illustration of Jim's character as the carefree and superstitious image. Finally, Twain uses Jim's superstition to round out this categorization of all Negroes. After Huck fools his father and the town into thinking he was murdered, he escapes into the wilderness of Jackson Island and unexpectedly runs into Jim. Upon seeing the boy he assumes was dead, Jim exclaims, "Doan' hurt me-don't! I hain't ever done no harm to a ghos'. I alwuz liked dead people, en fone all I could for 'em...doan' do nuffin to Ole Jim, 'at 'uz alwuz yo' fren'," (41). Instead of the seemingly logical conclusion to which most would jump, that Huck was not really dead, Jim's ignorance combines with his superstitious belief in ghosts to form the opinion that the vision he saw before him did not consist of flesh and bones, but the ghost of Huck Finn returned from the dead to haunt him. Twain uses this combination of ignorance, absurdity, and superstition in Jim to give the reader the false idea that Jim personifies the stereotype of an empty-headed being who is content being in bondage and not suited for any other form of life.

Throughout the rest of the novel, Twain makes every effort to eliminate this misconception by showing Jim's kindness, sensitivity and tenderness towards people. Though the stereotype is almost immediately contradicted when Jim runs away, because the stereotypical Negro would not have done this. The stereotypical Slave is perceived as a "Happy Sambo," who wouldn't want to leave his home. After this point, Twain continues to unveil Jim's true colors throughout the story. The most obvious way in which Twain accomplishes this unveiling is through Jim's feelings about his family. One day, as Huck woke up to hear Jim "moaning and mourning to himself...[Huck] knowed what it was about. He was thinking about his wife and his children...and...he cared just as much for his people as white folk does for their'n," (155). The idea of slaves loving other people presented a very foreign idea to most whites. The white man's minds were inferior and unable to feel the same emotions, like love and loneliness. As Huck compares Jim to "white folks," it is one of the highest compliments. Huck shows his admiration for Jim in the only words he can, using the perceived difference between blacks and whites to relate that Jim's humanity was that equal of any white man. Jim's image also changes when he relates to Huck the story of his daughter, Elizabeth, who loses her hearing after a severe case of scarlet fever. Before he realizes that his daughter cannot hear, he punishes her for disobedience, not understanding that she does not hear his demands. Once this realization occurs his guilt overwhelms him. "Oh Huck, I bust out a-cryin' en grab her up in my arms, en say, 'Oh, de po little thing! De Lord God Amighty fogive po' Jim, kaze he never gwyne to fogive hisself as long's he live!'" (156). Guilt for his own actions and the compassion he feels for his daughter are two more "white" emotions that Huck realizes Jim also feels. Throughout Huck and Jim's journey down the Mississippi River, Huck views Jim in a different light, realizing that he is not completely the ignorant, ridiculous creature he was once thought to be. Jim is actually a human being capable of feeling the entire spectrum of emotions, disputing the classic view of the Negro. Not until the end of the book does Twain's expression of Jim's humanity is indisputably upheld. As Jim voluntarily stops his escape in order for Huck to fetch a doctor for the injured Tom Sawyer, an action that saves Tom's live, while jeopardizing his own, Jim's humanity is demonstrated. This action also eventually leads to Jim's recapture and near hanging by an angry mob. Even though Jim has full knowledge that he may be recaptured his selflessness causes him to insist upon fetching a doctor. Again, Huck compares Jim to a white man when he says, "I knowed he was white inside, and I reckoned he'd say what he did say," (76). A second instance takes place at the very end of the book, after Jim realizes that his freedom has come at last. Huck worries about his father coming back to steal Huck's money. Jim quietly tells him that Pap will never come back again. When Huck presses him as to why Jim says this, Jim refers to an earlier instance in the story when the two had seen a house floating down the river with a dead man inside. "Doan' you 'member de house dat was float'n down de river, en dey wuz a man in dah, kivered up en I went in en unkivered him and didn' let you come in? Well, den, you kin git yo' money when you wants it, kase dat was him," (). By not allowing Huck to come inside the house and by keeping the true identity of the man concealed, Jim believes his actions protect Huck from pain and unpleasantness. Because Jim has a stable, loving relationship with his own children, he does not realize that some fathers, Huck's white father included, do not love their children in this way. Jim's last selfless action reveals more about his character than any other action in the book. Not only does it speak of his love of his own children, but it also proves the love and compassion that he develops for Huck Finn, proving that Jim, a black man, is as human as any white man, contradicting the stereotype that Negroes are inhuman and unfeeling.

Along with defying the social stereotype of the happy-go-lucky, ignorant Negro, Jim also serves as a metaphor for the free Negro's social standing in 1884, the year of the book's publication. After the Civil War, blacks were technically free men, but were rarely granted their deserved rights and privileges equal to those held by the free white man. Very often, Huck and the river raft's other passengers, the duke and the king, travel onshore, leaving Jim alone of the raft. In order to protect him against slave traders who might come upon him, the duke paints his face blue and dresses him up in absurd costumes, leaving a sign that reads, "Sick Arab- But harmless when not out of his head," (156). Huck believes this disguise is put to test the people from recognizing Jim's race, but when the disguise is put to the test, the people who come upon Jim simply see that he is a "strange nigger dressed so and so," (11). This incident can be compared to what happened to many free blacks during their migration northward, trying to find jobs and prosperity. Many employers would not give them jobs, simply because of their race. They dressed like white men, acted like white men, but were not granted the privileges of white men. Likewise, Jim tries to disguise himself as an Arab, but still is not treated as an Arab. Twain also uses the character of Tom Sawyer to further the idea of the black social status. Tom Sawyer arrives at his Aunt Sally's home with the knowledge that Jim's owner, Miss Watson, set him free in her will. Yet, Tom keeps this knowledge to himself, using the opportunity that Jim's captivity provided for his own amusement, hoping for a "grand adventure." After the truth is revealed, Tom confides to Huck that his plan "was for [Huck and Tom] to run [Jim] down the river on the raft, and have adventures plumb to the mouth of the river, and then tell him about his being free," (). Likewise, Tom Sawyer continued the practice of white men using black men to their own advantage. Tom showed great selfishness in not telling Jim the truth and using the man's pitiable condition to his own advantage. However, the biggest statement that Twain makes about social conditions of free blacks in his era does not have to do with Jim's treatment by any character in the book, but simply his condition near the end of it. A family by the name of Phelps, Tom Sawyer's aunt and uncle, recapture Jim and put him in chains again, although his freedom has long since been granted. Jim personifies the free black's condition after the Civil War in that he was a free man, still wearing chains. The bonds that blacks wore were not those of slavery, however, but those of racism. Former slaves were free and they were granted the rights of citizens of the United States, yet they were still denied the chance to fulfill their own dreams and pursue happiness because of the racism that shaded the opinions of the whites who controlled society. By presenting Jim in such a manner, Twain's character embodies the position in which free blacks found themselves after their freedom had been granted.

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Twain's novel is largely satirical, written in the tongue-in-cheek manner considered his trademark. However, underneath the ridicule and the satire lies a far deeper meaning. The author's statement about the perception of white superiority and freed slave's position in society is potent and powerful. After its publication, the book incensed many readers because it dared to insult the preconceived notions and accepted beliefs about the black position in slavery. Though many Northerners claimed to hate slavery and love the black race, racism abounded more in the North than in the South, where people hated the black race, but loved the individual black. This book proved an appeal to the white population of the United States to recognize its hypocrisy in dealing with freed slaves.

Please note that this sample paper on mark twain is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on mark twain, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on mark twain will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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On September 4, 00, the Dow Jones Indexes and SAM Group announced the results of their annual review for the Dow Jones Sustainability Indexes (DJSI). Effective September , 00 the DJSI World will again include over 00 companies from countries that lead their industry in terms of sustainability.

Intel Corporation has been selected as a component of this important index since its inception in 1. And, more significantly, Intel has been declared the Technology Market Sector Leader for the last years in a row. We are proud of this bottom-line recognition of our efforts across multiple disciplines at Intel that make up our economic, environmental and social performance states Dave Stangis, Director, Corporate Responsibility for Intel.

According to John Prestbo, Editor, Dow Jones Indexes, Since we launched the DJSI family in 1, there has been a significant shift in market perception of sustainability investments. A growing number of private and institutional investors are adapting economic, environmental and social criteria to reflect the impact of sustainability issues on long-term shareholder value. As a result, we are now seeing this investment style stepping out of its niche and making its way into mainstream asset management and equity research.

Since the launch of the DJSI 45 licenses have been issued to financial institutions in 14 countries. These licensees have created a variety of index based financial products including active and passive funds, equity baskets and warrants. In total, the assets managed in these portfolios now stand at close to $. billion EUR.

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For full information on the Indexes, including review methodology, a full list of the components, Market Sector Leaders and Intels Sustainability Biography visit www.sustainability-index.com.

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Intel gets perfect score in Human Rights Campaign IndexIntel is one of only 1 major U.S. companies to achieve perfect scores in the 00 Corporate Equality Index tallied by the Human Rights Campaign (HRC). Chartered with protecting the rights of lesbians, gays, bisexual, and transgender individuals, HRC conducts its corporate ratings annually.

The number of major U.S. companies to achieve the 100-percent ranking is up from 11 in 00.

What we see this year is improvement in every category measured, from written non-discrimination policies to domestic partner health insurance benefits and beyond, says HRC Education Director Kim I. Mills in an article published on the HRC home page. Corporate America continues to be a leader in the quest for GLBT civil rights. The bottom line is that successful businesses are increasingly recognizing that equality works.

Some 80 companies improved their scores in 00, with Lockheed Martin Corp. leading the industry trend by improving from a rating of 0 percent in 00 to 71 percent in 00.

HRC rates companies based on their performances in seven major indices that answer the following questions Does the company have a written non-discrimination policy covering sexual orientation, as well as a written policy covering gender identity and/or expression? Does the company extend health care benefits to same-sex partners? Does it offer diversity training? Are gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) employee groups officially sanctioned? Is corporate advertising respectful of the GLBT community? Are local GLBT community groups financially supported? And finally, does the company decline to engage in activities that could undermine the rights of the GLBT community?

The 0 corporations that joined Intel in achieving 100-percent ratings are Aetna Inc., American Airlines (AMR Corp.), Apple Computer Inc., Avaya Inc., Bank One Corp., Capital One Financial Corp., Eastman Kodak Co., Hewlett-Packard Co., IBM Corp., J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc., Levi Strauss & Co., Lucent Technologies Inc., MetLife Inc., NCR Corp., Nike Inc., PG&E Corp., Prudential Financial Inc., S.C. Johnson, and Xerox Corp.

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The Alzheimers Association, Intel Team Up To Expand Home Care Technology Research

Associations Research Program Expands into Technology Arena

The Alzheimers Association and Intel Corporation today announced the formation of a consortium to spur development of technologies for the home to help people with Alzheimers disease. The Everyday Technologies for Alzheimer Care (ETAC) consortium plans to fund more than $1 million of research to develop new models of Alzheimer care based upon current and evolving technologies in computing, communications and home health care.

The formation of this consortium is the first of its kind between a leader in Alzheimer research and a leader in the computing technology industry, said William Thies, vice president, medical and scientific affairs for the Alzheimers Association. It is our hope that through this effort we will improve the quality of life for millions of people with Alzheimers disease, their families, friends and professional health care partners.

Managed by the Alzheimers Association, the ETAC consortium will fund research grants to explore new ways to help delay the onset of disabling symptoms, compensate for functional impairments and postpone and/or prevent placement in residential care settings. The Alzheimers Association and Intel will invite other technology companies, universities, industry labs, government agencies and voluntary health organizations to join the consortium and to help fund this research.

By working with the Alzheimers Association we hope to stimulate innovative research that uncovers how computing and communications technologies can support behaviors that help prevent and detect disease, foster independence and improve quality of life, said David Tennenhouse, vice president and director of research for Intel.

There are currently 4 million Americans living with Alzheimers. This number is expected to surge as 76 million baby boomers begin to turn 65 in 011. In addition to those with the disease, another 1 million family members are affected by its devastation. Caregivers and loved ones are burdened with the time and resource consuming tasks of supporting the individual with Alzheimers physically, cognitively, emotionally and spiritually.

A New Remedy Everyday Technologies for Alzheimer Care

The Everyday Technologies for Alzheimer Care consortium grew out of several separate, on-going efforts at the Alzheimers Association and Intel. In 001, the Alzheimers Association convened a technology research group to review the impact of emerging technologies on the quality of care and health services for Alzheimers disease. The group consisted of caregivers as well as experts from diverse disciplines including bioengineering, robotics, artificial intelligence, communications, systems design, software engineering, medicine, nursing, biology, economics, finance and business.

In addition, the Alzheimers Association is the largest private funder of Alzheimer research having put nearly $140 million towards research into the causes, treatment, prevention and cure of the disease. The associations research grants program encourages work by new investigators and innovative, state-of-the-art projects.

The ETAC consortium represents an expansion of the Alzheimers Associations medical and scientific research program into medical and electronic technology, added Thies. ETAC is a first step toward building a consortium of businesses, healthcare groups and aging organizations that share the widespread industry concern that current care systems and models will be inadequate to accommodate the increasing demand for individualized care.

At the same time, Intel continues to fund and conduct research on the ways in which computing and communications technologies could support the daily health and wellness needs of people of all ages in their homes and everyday lives. Through its university research program,Intel awards worldwide university research grants for projects designed to advance key focus areas, including those in the area of consumer health and wellness.

Additionally, Intels Proactive Health strategic research project is developing in-home technology prototypes to test applications that address the needs of the worlds aging population. An example of this technology is a wireless sensor network made up of thousands of small, sensing devices that could someday be embedded throughout the home to monitor important behavioral tendencies such as sleep and eating patterns, location and also send prompts to a person such as reminders to take medication. The data collected by the sensor network could help in the detection and prevention of dementia or other medical conditions, as well as help a caregiver locate a patient in need. For more information about Intel Research visit www.intel.com/research.

The ETAC consortium will build a national alliance of research and development experts from diverse disciplines including software engineering, medicine, and business to identify and harness technologies such as sensor networks that will address the many care needs of people with Alzheimers disease and ease the burden to their caregivers and loved ones.

About the Alzheimers Association

The Alzheimers Association is the world leader in Alzheimer research and support. Through our national network of advocates and chapters, we advance research, improve services and care, create awareness of Alzheimers disease and mobilize support. Our vision is a world without Alzheimers disease. For more information on the Alzheimers Association, visit www.alz.org.

Intel, the worlds largest chip maker, is also a leading manufacturer of computer, networking and communications products. Additional information about Intel is available at www.intel.com/pressroom.

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Intel Elects John L. Thornton To Its Board Of Directors

Intel Corporation announced that John L. Thornton, professor and director of global leadership at Tsinghua University in Beijing, was elected to Intels board of directors, effective today.

Thornton retired July 1 as president and co-chief operating officer of Goldman Sachs Group Inc. and as a member of that firms board of directors.

He is also a director of the Ford Motor Company, British Sky Broadcasting and Pacific Century Group Inc. He is chairman of the Brookings Institution Board of Trustees, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, and a member of the advisory board or trustee of the Asia Society, The Goldman Sachs Foundation, The Hotchkiss School, Morehouse College, The Tsinghua University School of Economics and Management (Beijing), the Yale University Investment Committee and the Yale School of Management.

Thornton received a bachelors degree in history from Harvard College in 176, a bachelors/masters degree in jurisprudence from Oxford University in 178 and a masters degree in public and private management from the Yale School of Management in 180. He and his family live in London and Far Hills, N.J.

We are very pleased to have John Thornton join Intels board of directors, said Intel Chairman Andrew S. Grove. His background in management and finance and his 0 years of hands-on experience with international business will be immensely valuable to us.

Thorntons election to Intels board brings the number of directors to 1. That number is expected to decrease to 11 in May when Charles E. Young, a director since 174, reaches the boards mandatory retirement age.

Intel, the worlds largest chip maker, is also a leading manufacturer of computer, networking and communications products. Additional information about Intel is available at www.intel.com/pressroom.

Intel is a trademark or registered trademark of Intel Corporation or its subsidiaries in the United States and other countries.

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Bison

American, Canadian, and European

Bison are the largest land mammals of North America and Europe. Bison belong to the order Artiodactyla, all hoofed animals with even number of toes, and the family Bovidae. The Bovidae family includes species such as gazelles, antelopes, mountain goats, bison and buffalo. Some domesticated species also included would be cattle, sheep, and goats. Bovids range through Africa, Europe, Asia, and North America.

Buffalo species are separate from bison species. True Buffalo would be Water Buffalo of Southern Asia, and Cape buffalo of Africa. True Bison consist of North American Bison and European Bison.

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Since the European and North American Bison are so closely related some scientists believe that both species descended from an ancient relative in India. As the herd traveled north from India, some went east into Siberia, and some went west towards Europe. The Siberian herd eventually migrated over the Bering Straight that once connected Asia and North America. These herds were pre-historical looking, their massive body weight could weigh up to 5,000 pounds and they're horns could grow to be six feet wide. Today's version of the pre-historical North American herd has decreased in size due to environmental differences.

There are two North American species of bison, Bison Bison or also known as the Plains bison, and Bison Athabascae, or wood bison. Bison Bison roam the prairies of Central North America (the United States of America); they once roamed from the boarders of Canada to Mexico and as far east as Virginia and Pennsylvania, and to the western shores of Oregon. Some physical description of the Plains bison would be that both males and females have a single set of hollow, curved horns. The dark dense hairs of the bison's mange can cover the horns. Male Bison, bulls, often weigh about ,000 pounds (roughly one ton), they can stand on an average of six feet tall at the shoulders, and grow to the lengths of twelve feet long. They have a thick massive head and a large shoulder hump, which is used for energy-rich fats. The female bison, cows, are three-quarters the size of a full-grown bull. Another distinctive descriptions of the Plains bison are the long black hairs that form a long beard. Despite their great size and bulkiness, bison can sprint at speeds of 0 miles per hour. Their hooves are also sharp which open up the soil to natural aeration and filtration. This leaves plant roots behind for regeneration (cattle have flat hooves which will compact the soil).

Bison Athabascae or Wood bison once lived in Northern Alberta, British Columbia, and Saskatchewan. They have a longer body frame, longer legs, and wider hooves, for more agile walking on mountain areas and walking on top of deep snow. They also have a denser, darker coat. Their coats are darker so they can absorb the sunlight. These Bison will go under lower hanging snow covered branches and use the branches as a blanket to trap a small warm air pocket. They can also run over twenty-five miles per hour and jump across a ten-foot wide stream and a six feet tall fence from a standing position.

The European Bison, Bison Bonasus, or also known as Wisent, once roamed the great temperate deciduous forest that stretched from the British Isles through most of Europe and western area of Siberia. The bulls can be five feet tall and weigh up to ,000 pounds. Their coat is one continuous golden brown color. A thick shaggy mane covers the head and neck. Horns are longer, curve-upwards and slightly forward. This species can also jump a ten-foot wide river and jump six feet over a fence from a standing position. The Wisent is more closely related to the Wood bison from Canada, rather than the Plains bison.

All three species are extremely similar with only differences of their description do to their environment around them and their geographical differences. All three bison species have similar life cycles, diseases, and history.

Bison will shed twice a year in the spring and fall; when shedding the only hair which remains are the forelegs, the shoulder hump, and the head. At this time they can become very vulnerable to insects. So bison will often wallow in marshes or dust bowls.

Most bison live in mixed herds of cows, calves, yearlings, and a few older bulls. The mature bulls are often loners most of the time. They will only become part of the herd during the mating season. Mating season is from July to mid-August. Bulls will begin to bellow and loner bulls will fight for herd of females. So many bull -fights will occur during mating season. The bulls lower their heads and ram each other's skull with full force. The fighting only stop until one bull is injured or has given up. A cow's gestation is about 85 days. They can give birth anytime between next spring and early fall. More often a single calf is born, although there are records of twins being born as well. The baby calf can weigh about thirty to sixty pounds at birth. They must learn to walk within a few minutes and are weaned at seven to twelve months. Both males and females reach sexual maturity at two to four years of age. Females can produce litters between ages of three to thirteen years old. Females will only breed twice every three years. Once a male has become sexually mature (sometimes at the age of three years old) he will go off on his won in search for their own female herd. Females will stay with the herd for life. Very few will venture off to another herd. Bison have a longevity of living up to forty years old, but most out in the wild will live up to twenty-five years old, and captive bison will live about thirty years old.

Bison can be prone to diseases. Although disease aren't their primary vector for their endangerment in the wild. Bison have a very well developed immunity to most Bovine diseases, but tuberculosis and brucellos are two common diseases seen in bison. Brucellos is more often of the two. Brucellos is a bacterial infection, caused by inbreeding the species too often. It attacks the reproductive system of the bulls and there is no cure for this disease. Bison that have become infected can live for one to two years, but most will die in a shorter period of time. The disease has not been scientifically proven to be easily transmittable from bison to cattle, but many farmers fear that their herd will become contaminated if a bison walks on their land. Farmers are ordering privet owners and government land owners to keep their bison away from their farmland, or drastic measures will be taken. Many bison are being destroyed due to this disease, the Wisent are extremely susceptible. Their numbers are quickly diminishing. The species only exist in protected private property. They have become extinct in the wild.

Bison are also hunted down; Grizzly bears, black bears, gray wolves and cougars have been known to prey on Bison. Grizzly bears and cougars could attack a full-grown bison, but it would take a lot of energy to do so. Wolves are dangerous to the young, sick, and old. A bison in its prime would usually be a match for a wolf. However the biggest threat to all Bison species is man.

By the time America's earliest pioneers, about 0,000 years ago had established villages the bison dominated the rolling grasslands and forested hillsides. Researchers estimated that the prairie alone numbered between 0 million and 00million bison. While the woodland bison population existed in much smaller numbers. During these times Native Americans would use bison to their advantage. They used the bison as food, shelter, and considered the bison a spiritual creature that represented the symbol of strength and determination. The Native Americans used many strategically techniques, by surrounding small herds with a human chain, giving archers a better shot at more tightly packed animals. Others learned to stampede bison over cliffs called "buffalo jumps". Often killing fifty to sixty bison at a time. Flesh and skin weren't the only advantages of bison. The tribes learned to use every part of the animal from the horns to the tail.

The Plains bison was severely effected by the mass destruction of numbers. The arrival of the early European settlers and professional "buffalo hunters" drove the bison to near extinction. A conflict arose between white settlers and Native Americans. Many people believe that the reason behind the destruction of the bison would send the Native Americans away as well. One congressman, James Throckmorton of Texas believed that, "it would be a great step forward in the civilization of the Indians, if there was not a buffalo in existence." So the destruction of one species would result in the destruction of another. By 1870, hundreds of thousands of bison were being shipped every year; more than one and a half million bison were packed aboard trains and wagons in the winter of 187-7 alone. There were even "buffalo killing contests"; a man in Kansas set a record by killing 10 bison in just 40 minutes. Men like 'Buffalo' Bill Cody were hired to slaughter animals, Buffalo bill alone killed more than four thousand bison in two years. Even train companies offered tourists the chance to shoot bison from the windows of their coach as they road past a herd of bison. By 1880s the slaughter was almost over, their numbers began to dwindle. Both the northern and southern herds had been destroyed. Less than 00 wild animals remained in the United States. Conservation of the bison came slow; in 184 Congress decided a law making bison hunting in Yellowstone National Park illegal. Today Yellowstone holds the most populated bison in the United States, holding more than 5,000 bison. Thousands of bison also inhabit the National Bison Refuge in the Flathead Valley of Montana, the Wichita Mountains National Wildlife Refuge in southwest Oklahoma, the Fort Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge in northern Nebraska, and Walnut Creek National Wildlife Park in central Iowa. Many other private herds have boosted the bison's overall population over the years. About 00,000 bison overall in the United States as of 18.

Herds of Wood bison today are found in Alberta, Manitoba, and Yukon Territories of Canada, population of about 15,000 bison. The largest concentration of European bison live in Poland's Bialoweiza National Park, consisting of about two thousand bison.

To the Native Americans the bison is still a highly sacred animal. In fact the most sacred bison to the Native Americans ever is the White Bison. This bison is not albino; the calf coat is born white. The first white buffalo calf recorded was in 1. The calf is extremely important to the religious beliefs of many American Indian tribes, like the Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota, collectively known as the Sioux. They are considered primary spiritual guardians. The native Americans believe that, "two thousand years ago a young woman who first appeared in the shape of a white buffalo gave the Lakota' ancestors a sacred pipe and sacred ceremonies and made the guardians of the Black Hills (of South Dakota). Before leaving, she also prophesized that one day she would return to purify the world, bringing back spiritual balance and harmony." The birth of Miracle, a white bison calf born August 14 was considered a sign that the young woman would appear. Miracle, unlike any other white buffalo before her, was unique. She was the first female white bison born in over 00 years. The chance of a white bison being born today is one to every 15,000 bison. The calf was born on a privately owned ranch that belonged to the Heider's from Wisconsin. Her place in the prophecies and beliefs of many tribes make her a highly sacred animal symbol. However her coat has become darker and she is not as white as she once was. The Native American tribe, the Lakota's, claim that the white bison would change their colors four times, which signifies the colors of the four peoples she would unify black, red, yellow, and white. Miracle is a symbol of hope and renewal for humanity and for harmony between all people, and races in our world today.

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The state has the ultimate power and it is the primary political unit, but the world of arms, controlling interests, economic power, and environment change and with that the power of the states changes in the world. Another altering is the rapid growth of the 0th century of public and private organizations through the world, without them the world wouldn't function good in many areas, so they promote their welfare to solve serious problems and make the world a better place for living.

The modern international organizations are consisted of IGO-international governmental organizations, NGO- nongovernmental organizations, INGO-international nongovernmental organizations, private agencies which seek profit or not. We can recognize IGO and INGO by these characteristics 1) permanent organization to carry on a continuing set of functions.

) voluntary membership of eligible parties.

) a basic instrument stating goals, structure, and methods of operation.

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4) broadly representative consultative conference organ.

5) permanent secretariat to carry on continuous administrative, research, and information functions.

And the IGO are established with a contract or a treaty, and operate at level of consent, recommendation, and cooperation. For now, the international organizations are more close to the state system, rather to some other governmental system. The international organizations have significant roles in cooperation, channels of communication which find an easier way of communicating between governments. The dilemmas and the paradoxes for the international organizations are that they insist that a state should be sovereign, should have supremacy and independence. Each state its own boss, that regarding the actions it takes, because it depends of the other states actions such as communications, economics and development and world peace. Other paradoxes are that states will always try to increase its power, prestige and economic development on expenses on other states. These kinds of actions may lead of involvement of the United Nations which takes cooperative actions. The divergent conflicts lead to conflicts among states in which the UN is limited with their power and actions. The world is starting to be a smaller place for living and with that we come across a problem of deferring which are domestic and international concerns, which means that a domestic problem might transform to an international one. The delay of the development of political and social institutions is caused by the rapid change and with that the rapid growth of problems in our world, and with that slowing down the development. The inadequate elements produce order with national society on international level, which causes wrong order of fixing problems. The paradox of human rationality and humanitarianism versus the individual's egoistic, selfish, and emotional qualities. The paradox of maximum international problems and limited means of resolving these problems.

The ideological roots of international organizations.

The basic concept of intergovernmental organizations are involved with diplomacy, treaties, conferences, rules of warfare, the regulation of the use of force, peaceful settlement of disputes, development of international law, trade, economic cooperation, social cooperation, cultural relationships, world travel, world communications, cosmopolitanism, universalism, peace movements, the formation of leagues and federations, international administration, collective security, and movements for world government. The idea to establish an international organization is old 100 years, but the principles are old with centuries.

The war prevention and regulation are been made with these alternatives 1) World unity in the form of universal empire - Roman Empire.

) World view of cosmopolitanism based on such concepts as the brotherhood of man - Cynics and Stoics of the pre- and early Christian era Greece and Rome.

During passed centuries the philosophers have proposed such diverse propositions such as free trade, disarmament, decolonization, and development of international law. And for world peace there were propositions and examples of dissolving confederacies and state unions, but none what so ever have gotten to the supreme creation called a superstate of world federation.

In Emanuel Kant's reasoning of world peace begins with the analysis of the nature of humanity, and concluded, that people have two sides on one hand, they are selfish, egoistic, and greedy, and on the other hand they are reasonable. The reasoning provides a discipline for balancing the selfish side of humans. People escape from the anarchy and run to the law and government because of the reasoning. Nations are too affected by this, they will move gradually from anarchy to order.

Kant predicted that the world society will be made up of a federation of republican states open for states volunteers.

William Ladd detailed his work with proposals for world's international peace who advocated the establishment of congress of nations and court of nations who will be legitimate, and with legislative and judicial powers.

Ladd wrote an essay on abolition of standing armies, and he stated that people will obey law more because of an opinion, rather then compulsion.

Besides the philosophers reasoning and proposals the growth of international institutions has developed in 1th and 0th century because 1) The philosophers' ideas were not necessarily dominant or exclusive in their impact upon the rulers' thoughts and behavior.

) No age until the present one was marked by a set of conditions conducive to an increased emphasis on international cooperation, such as potentially global wars, emergence of newly independent states, growing interdependence.

The forces of political fragmentation had been present throughout centuries, states had to emerge and engage them selves into competition before the ambience have changed, for developing an increased developing.

The 17th and 18th century were marked with consolidation of power, war rivals, the colonial empires, and intensification of nationalism, philosophers stressed the individualism and stated that individualism tends more to rivalry rather than cooperation.

Even today we can see that forces of nationalism outrage the forces of internationalism, older states emphasize prestige, economic interests and national security, the world is segmented by elements of language, customs, religion, entrenched interests, ideology, political structure, economic rivalry, human acquisitiveness, fear, and suspicion.But anyway the forces stayed dominant and political internationalism has limited momentum.

In search of theory; the theory should be clear to the point, descriptive, and explanatory.

The international organizations are only one small segment of world's politics. These are some of the recent developments in theory development for international organizations functionalism, (complex) interdependence, transnationalism, regime theory, and epistemic communities.

In 166 the first attempt was been made about functionalism by David Mitrany, the increase in economical and social cooperation will eventually lead to building of habits of broader base of common actions that will eventually spill over in the political arena. Functionalism and its flaws; If we assume that a clear distinction can be made between political and nonpolitical areas, and if we underestimate the states sovereignty to the transfer of political loyalties to international level. Historical and empirical evidence substitutes the functionalists'claim that ignorance, poverty, hunger, and disease are the "root causes of war."

Ernst Haas Neo-functionalism

Cooperation among nations is not imposed by norms but done by learning by doing. Process of learning is important - functional integration - political decision beyond nation-states.

Haas is functionalist, but he emphasized the political process, therefore we call him neo-functionalist.

Systems theory; Founders Charles McClelland, David Easton, Richard Snyder, Karl Deutsch, Morton Kaplan, J. David Singer, Richard Rosecrance

Definition "A set of interrelated entities and their interrelationships"

Analyzes global politics focusing on the comprehensible side of relations development of theoretical models of global systems.

Flaws in systems theory; little progress toward broad workable theory has been produced.

Gaps in necessary data.

Accuracy in determining the boundaries of a system as distinguished from its environment is often a problem.

Status quo-oriented, variables involved in global models are too complex, difficulties in quantifying and operationalizing concepts.

The independence; Definition "Interdependence exists when changes in one nation produce significant changes in one or more others, or where the effects of one government's actions are partially determined by what other governments do." Independence may either have positive or negative effect leading to cooperation or conflict.

The complex independence; The complex independence exist in countries because Transactions across national boundaries have increased greatly since 145.

Economic forces have surpassed military options in importance as instruments of foreign policy.

Private actors are assuming an increased role in global relationships.

Transnationalism; Transactions, communication, and states and nations, and after it will alter the integration also, focuses on activities of nongovernmental and individuals involved in the transfer of goods and services, money, and credit information, or persons from one country to another and the relevance of such actions in global relationships. Transnational/Nongovernmental international organizations may be divided into two broad categories

1) Nonprofit organizations.

) Multinational business enterprise organized for profit.

The regime theory; Researchers Stephen Krasner, Donald Puchala, Raymond Hopkins.

Developed in the 180s.

"International regimes are defined as principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actor expectations converge in a given issue-area."

Regimes constrain and regularize the behavior of participants, affect which issues among protagonists move on and off agendas, determine which activities are legitimized or condemned, and influence whether, when, and how conflicts are resolved.

Flaws of the Regime theory

Imprecise usage of the term "regime"

Regime analysis diverts attention from more basic elements of global relationships. It is value biased and static, emphasizing the status quo and neglecting dynamic elements of change(Susan Strange).

Epistemic communities

Definition

"A network of professionals with recognized expertise and competence in a particular domain and an authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge within that domain or issue area."

Examines the influences of networks of knowledge-based experts in articulating the cause-and-effect relationships of complex problems, helping states identify their interests, framing the issues for collective debate, proposing specific policies, and identifying salient points for negotiation.

Conclusion

Although nation-states or their spokespersons are the primary actors and nationalism is the chief motive force in world politics, a few developments have occurred in recent decades to enhance the possibilities of international cooperation and unity

Industrial revolution, scientific developments, accelerating trend in the formation of int'l private and public org., new problems of global proportions such as population, food supply, energy supplies, mass poverty, environmental controls, outer space, the oceans and seabed, insurance against human annihilation.

To a degree never existing before, all humans are interdependent for their lives and welfare.

International organizations may serve a useful function in channeling a portion of state interactions and in providing vehicles for increased cooperation.

In spite of their limited role, int'l org. have become indispensable instruments within the international system.

Please note that this sample paper on The state has the ultimate power is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The state has the ultimate power, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on The state has the ultimate power will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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If you order your cheap custom paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Effects Of Abortion. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Effects Of Abortion paper right on time.

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Introduction

A lot of people throughout the world have different views on abortion. People view it

differently, some view it as the killing of a human life while others view it as a normal

part of life and as something that is just meant to be. It is quite obvious that abortion has

Custom writing service can write essays on Effects Of Abortion

more of an effect on the mother than on anyone else. 'Abortion' means the premature

expulsion of a fetus and 'effect' means the result of a cause or action by some agent. This

essay will be looking into the various methods of abortion, medical, emotional and

psychological effects of abortion.

Methods of Abortion

The two main types of abortion methods are the early abortion method and the late

term abortion method. The early abortion method is performed in the first trimester and

the late term abortion method is performed during the second trimester. 8% of abortions

are performed during the first 1 weeks of pregnancy (Alan Guttmacher Institute's Issues

in Brief). This comes to show that there is a high percentage of women who decide on an

early abortion. Early abortion methods include Vacuum aspiration abortion, in which the

women's cervix is dilated and a thin, flexible tube is inserted into the womb. The baby is

torn from the womb by suction, often into pieces, into a container. Another early abortion

method is Dilation and Curettage (D&C).It is similar to the suction aspiration abortion

except that a loop-shaped knife or curette cuts the baby as it is being suctioned from the

womb. This is the most well known method of abortion. RU-486 is an early drug abortion

method, a method of abortion using drugs. Its effect is to block the use of an essential

hormonal nutrient by the newly-implanted baby, who then dies, and drops off. It has an

effect only when the baby is at least two to three weeks old. Another early drug abortion

method is the Salt poisoning. In this method a strong salt solution is directly injected into

the amniotic fluid. The baby breathes and swallows it, is poisoned, struggled and

sometimes even convulsed. The mother gives birth to a dead child two days later. The

last early abortion method is Methotrexate, which is a treatment for cancer and arthritis. It

stops the baby's cells from dividing. Some late term abortion methods are Dilation and

Extraction (D&E) In this method the cervix is dilated using a gradually expanding

material. A curette is then used to dismember the child, the head is crushed and the baby

is then removed from the women via forceps. It is done over a - day period. Another

late term abortion method is the D&X or the partial birth method. This method allows the

cervix to be dilated for the passing of ring forceps. A foot or lower leg is located and

pulled into the vagina. The baby is extracted in breech fashion until the head is just inside

the cervix. The baby's legs hang outside the women's body. With the baby face down,

scissors are plunged into the baby's head at the nape of the neck and spread open to

enlarge the wound. A suction top is inserted and the baby's brain is removed. The skull

collapses and the baby is delivered. This is the most commonly preformed late term

abortion method. Only by understanding the various methods of abortion will it be easy

to understand the medical, emotional and psychological effects of it.

Medical Effects

There are numerous medical effects for abortions. Death tops the list. Legal abortion is

reported as the fifth leading cause of maternal death. The leading causes

of abortion related deaths are hemorrhage, infection, embolism, anesthesia and

undiagnosed ectopic pregnancies. Another high risk medical effect of abortion is breast

cancer. For women aborting a first pregnancy, the risk of breast cancer doubles and is

multiplied with two or more abortions (Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health,

October 16). Other types of cancer that are co-related with abortions are cervical,

ovarian and liver cancer. Women with one abortion face a . % risk of cervical cancer

when compared to non-aborted women. Similar elevated risks of ovarian and liver cancer

have also been linked to single and multiple abortions. Uterine perforation is another

medical effect of abortion. Uterine damage may result in complications in later

pregnancies and may eventually evolve into problems which require a hysterectomy,

which itself may result in a number if additional complications and injuries including

osteoporosis. It is to be noted that uterine perforation can also be caused in normal

pregnancies during delivery. Another medical effect is placenta previa. This causes

abnormal development of the placenta due to uterine damage, increases the risk of fetal

malformation, prenatal death, and excessive bleeding during labor. One of the most

common medical effects of abortion are Pelvic inflammatory disease or PID. It is

potentially a life threatening disease which can lead to an increased risk of ectopic

pregnancy and reduced fertility. Normally signs of PID start to show 4 weeks after a first

trimester abortion. Abortion also increases the risk of HIV infection. Women have an

increased risk of 17% of HIV infection after an abortion. Researchers are % confident

with this result. "Significantly higher prevalences of infection [HIV-1] were associated

with induced abortion (0.4%) than with delivery (0.18%)" (European Journal of

Epidemiology, Deliveries, abortion and HIV-1 infection in Rome, 18-14). In

general one abortion, 5% of the time, leads to multiple abortions or can lead to the birth

of handicapped newborns in later pregnancies. Repeat abortion is also associated with the

increase in low birth weight and short gestation when compared with either one

live birth or one abortion (World Health Organization, Special Program of Research,

Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction 7th Annual Report,

Geneva, 11/78). Moreover abortion is linked to behavioral changes such as

smoking, drug abuse, and eating disorders which all contribute to increased risks of

health problems.

Psychological Effects

A post abortion study of patients showed that 8 weeks after their abortion 44%

complained of nervous disorders, 6% had experienced sleeping disturbances, 1% had

regrets about their decision and 11% had been prescribed with psychotropic medicine by

their family doctors (http//www.w-cpc.org/abortion/emotion.html). Repression, is used

by many post aborted women, as a coping mechanism. There may be a long period of

denial before a woman seeks psychiatric care. Therefore, these repressed feelings may

cause psychosomatic illnesses and psychiatric or behavioral problems in other areas of

her life. A random study showed that 1% of post-abortion women suffer from

diagnosable post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD or PAS). Not all, but some of these

women showed a high level of stress and avoidance behavior relative to their abortion

experiences. PTSD is a psychological dysfunction which results from a traumatic

experience which overwhelms a person's normal defense mechanisms resulting in intense

fear, feelings of helplessness, being trapped, or loss of control. PTSD results when the

traumatic event causes the hyperarousal of "flight or fight" defense mechanisms. The

hyperarousal causes these defense mechanisms to become disorganized, disconnected

from present circumstances, and take on a life of their own resulting in abnormal

behavior and major personality disorders. Women may experience abortion as a

traumatizing event for many reasons. The fear, anxiety, pain and guilt associated with the

procedure are mixed into the perception that they are violently killing heir own child. The

major symptoms of PTSD are classified under headings hyperarousal, intrusion and

constriction. Hyperarousal is when a person is on permanent alert for threat of danger.

Symptoms include exaggerated startle responses, anxiety attacks, irritability, out bursts of

anger or rage, aggressive behavior, difficulty concentrating, ect. Intrusion is when the

person reexperiences the traumatic even at unwanted times. Symptoms include

flashbacks, nightmares and recurrent and intrusive thoughts, etc. Constriction is the

numbing of emotional resources. It is an attempt to deny and avoid negative feelings.

Symptoms are inability to recall the traumatic experience, efforts to avoid activities that

might include recollections about the event, withdrawal from relationships, efforts to

deny thoughts or feelings about the event, etc. The psychological effects of abortion may

also cause suicidal ideation, alcohol abuse, drug abuse, increase smoking, eating

disorders, child abuse, etc. It could also lead to repeat abortions.

Emotional Effects

The emotion most women experience after abortion is relief. Because of the abrupt

hormonal changes caused by abortion some women experience short term anger, regret,

guilt or sadness. After abortion most women who feel a brief sadness or other negative

feeling recover very quickly. Emotional effects are therefore linked with psychological

effects. A recent study showed that after an abortion % or women had 'emotional

deadening' (Reported either as feeling less in touch with their emotions or feeling a need

to stifle their emotions). 86% of women increased their anger and rage rate. 48% reported

that they became more violent when they got angry. 86% became self conscious that

other people would become aware of their abortion. 8% of women felt lonely and

isolated. 75% had less confidence. If a woman does have prolonged feelings of sadness,

guilt or depression it is important for her to talk about her feelings with a councilor.

Conclusion

There are many effects of abortion on mothers'. There are various methods available

for abortions. The two main types being the early abortion method and the late term

abortion method. The medical effects of abortion can be cured at times and at other times

it leads to death. Some of the medical effects can also be caused in regular pregnancies

during the deliveries. The psychological and emotional effects are somewhat

similar. There is a link between the two effects. The most common psychological

disorder is post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This can sometimes lead to death as

well. Emotional effects tend to increase the anger rate in women. By opting for abortion,

the mother is putting her life into risk that can sometimes lead to death. Therefore I feel

that abortion is not the answer. There are so many other solutions that can be chosen.

Annotated Bibliography

Abortions All sides of the issue. (Online) Available

http//www.religioustolerance.org/abortion.htm, May 1 00

This website is intended for a general audience. Its purpose is to answer the questions and clear the doubts of any age group. The authors of this website have diverse beliefs about this topic and so they try to present both sides of the issue. This website gives a lot of information about the methods of abortion and yearly facts on abortion. It even has public opinion polls.

Methods of abortion. (Online) Available www.bfl.org/crisis/life.htm, May 1 00

This website in intended for the Christian audience. The authors of this website are anti-abortionists. The website has a lot of information about the different methods of abortion. It also has a list of some abortion clinics.

Davis, John. Abortion and the Christian What every believer should know. New Jersey Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 184

This book was written by John Jefferson Davis who is a professor of systematic theology and Christian ethics. This book is for readers that want to know what Christianity has to do with abortion. Including this, the book has some medical effects and facts on abortion.

Psychological and emotional effects on abortion. (Online) Available

http//www.w-cpc.org/abortion/emotion.htm May 1 00

This website is intended for women who have just had an abortion or for an audience that have questions about the aftermath of abortions. It suggests some remedies of what women can do to heal themselves mentally after an abortion.

Please note that this sample paper on Effects Of Abortion is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Effects Of Abortion, we are here to assist you. Your cheap college papers on Effects Of Abortion will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

Order your authentic assignment cheap custom writing service and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!