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During the early nineteen hundreds, lived a young woman named Carrie Pollitzer. Her life in America was much different compared to present day. Women did not have much freedom to be independent and their accomplishments were based primarily on gender. A woman would go to college to meet a husband, stay at home with the children, and would have a hard time living a high standard of life if not marrying. Economically, businesses were run by the white man. Men owned the land and often had poor white women and African Americans working the farms. Industrially, the factories were owned by men and many women that were unwed would work in the factories. Politically, the white man ran the national and state government. They were the only American citizens who were allowed to vote. My study of the southern women has shown, culturally, there were many different ways of living and prospering in the south. One is the poor African American communities, in which the people did not have anything. Another was the rich white plantation owning families who only associated themselves with other rich upper class plantation owners. This was a time when the civil war was over and the African Americans were not slaves anymore, so new problems were arising for the South since there was no longer free labor. Many women wrote letters to communicate with their friends and family. Now that I have set a basis of the time period and have explained women did not have many rights, I will look into Carrie Pollitzer's life and her struggles as well as accomplishments being a woman in the early nineteen hundreds. A time when feminism in America was as alien as space travel is in the eighteen hundreds and early nineteen hundreds. For example, 11 was a time when people said a woman's place was in the home and almost everyone believed it. Women did not work or go to college as much as men. In general men thought women were to stay home and take care of the daily house hold chores if money was not available for a nanny or maid. Most women had to depend on their husbands for money and a high standard of living. Men ran the government for the state and federal legislation. Their opinions were based on the writings of the English author Sir William Blackstone, who wrote, "The man and the wife is one, and he is the one." This was the popular opinion of most white men living during the early nineteen hundreds. Soon women were to fight back and gain some independence and freedom to take part in America's decisions on government.

The number one campaign in women's suffrage was the right to vote. In 11 two Charleston women decided to rebel and join a newly formed party, which would later be known as the National Women's Party. The two women's names were Carrie and Mabel Pollitzer. Later their younger sister joined in the year 116. Her name was Anita Pollitzer. The campaign of the National Women's Party was to win the right to vote for women living in the United States and would change all three women's lives.

Carrie Pollitzer wrote many letters to her family and friends. Through her letters, I have been able to take a step back in time and experience what life may have been for her. She was born December 5, 1881 in Charleston, South Carolina. She was the daughter of Gustave M. Pollitzer and Mrs. Clara Guinzburg Pollitzer. Her father was the owner of the firm, G.M. Pollitzer & Company of Beaufort and Charleston. His company exported sea island cotton and cotton seed. His family was German Jews who emigrated from Vienna to New York before Gustav was born. He made his way to Charleston when he was age sixteen. Carrie's mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a rabbi. Her family had emigrated from Prague in 1848. She taught German having graduated from Hunter College before she was married. Carrie had two younger sisters, Anita and Mabel Pollitzer. Anita, born October 1, 184, was the youngest born and considered the smartest. She had learned how to read, write, and play the piano before she even entered school. She also graduated from Columbia University with a degree in art and education in 116. Her middle sister, Mabel was very active and helped Carrie with women's suffrage. She organized the biology department at Memminger high and normal schools in 106. She also established the Charleston Public Library in 1, which required obtaining legislation. Her brother was a pediatrician who spent most of his life in Greenville. The Pollitzer family was very prominent and somewhat wealthy. There was an invitation to the president's banquet at the Charleston hotel in 10, found in the family letters. This implies Carrie's father had an influence of a higher society. My impression is the family was a part of the ellite class in Charleston and as young women in the early nineteen hundreds; the Pollitzer sisters accomplished the unusual for that time. Carrie Pollitzer died in October 4, 17, at the age of ninety-two. Anita died when she was eighty-one in July of 175, and Mabel lived to be ninety-four and died in April of 17. Gustave died in 10, six years before Carrie joined the Woman's Party and Clara lived to 14.

Carrie Pollitzer was the oldest so she had to set an example and she really did. During the time when Carrie was a little girl, it was rare for women to have gone further than a high school education. Carrie proved this to be something of history. She started at Miss Hutchet's private school and moved on to public schools. She graduated from Memminger Normal School in 101. She was the age of twenty. She attended many colleges and universities, such as, Harvard, Columbia, Cornell, Michigan, Colorado, Wellesley, and Vassar. She then went on to graduate from the South Carolina Kindergarten Association Training School. After her graduation from the training school she took part in two years of post-graduate work at the New York Kindergarten Association. This set her career in being a teacher. She spent her main bulk of her teaching career at Memminger Elementary School, which she taught for forty years. She also taught at Beth Elohim Sabbath School. Carrie has so many accomplishments and has succeeded at many of her goals; she is in a class of her own. Once she started teaching she became a kindergarten Director. This is when she pioneered in health work, social work, home visiting, kindergarten lunches, and programs for parents' meetings. She held offices in the Charleston Federation of Women's Clubs; offices in the Free Kindergarten Association; Recording Secretary of the Charleston Natural History Society; was a member of the Board of the Temple Sisterhood; was a speaker at Women's Clubs and Parent Teacher Association meetings; and was a participating member of civic, cultural, and educational organizations. Carrie was a local leader for Women's Suffrage before the passage of the Suffrage Amendment, and inaugurated a city wide Suffrage Day. She was a founder and organizer of the Annual Community Children's Festival, and served as director for the children's festival for twenty-three years. She served as Chairman of the Committee of the Charleston Federation of Women's Clubs, which was successful in obtaining the admission of women to the College of Charleston in 118. She was an active participant in several cultural organizations; the community chest drives, the Red Cross and Sabbath school education, and raised many fund raising drives to expand the school's facilities. While being a kindergarten teacher, Carrie was never married and lived with her sister Mabel at 5 Pitt Street in downtown Charleston. For as many accomplishments as one white woman can receive in the early nineteen hundreds, she should definitely set an example for all women to accomplish anything you want, especially being single.

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Carrie's motivation for writing letters was that of communication with her family and keeping them informed of what was going on in her life and what was going on in theirs. She did not write about political matters so much, but friendly letters to her loved ones. She had speeches and other writings which I found some parts of, but mainly I read her letters. She would write to her sisters and father the most about what she was accomplishing in college and in her activities. Her father would write her back and tell her he was proud, but the number one concern for her was her health. In one of her letters to her sister Mabel, she writes about weighing herself and only being seventy-nine pounds. She blames the scale because she thinks she really weighs eighty pounds. I liked to read her letters and find out what daily life was like. She talked about walking into town and different places she knew the family and friends had been. The letters and family papers that the source was coming from contained all types of writings about the family and their role in the community of Charleston. Carrie's papers included letters of her activities and accomplishments, as well as, friendly comments to find out what her other family members were doing. One interesting letter was about the time when she was organizing the community children's fund to help support the kindergarten program, a tornado and hurricane ravaged the two Kindergarten buildings. These took place mainly when she was in colleges and universities. She also had written some fiction, which was a story, but there was no title. There were just some sections of the story. The individuals that mainly came up were her father, Mabel, Anita, her nephew Richard, and to some sources I was not sure who they were. Her ideas were happy ones and she gave updates on how she was doing. Events that she discussed were the major movements she was a part of. These included women's suffrage, women attending the College of Charleston, and the importance of children's education starting at an early age.

The main interesting topics that Carrie Pollitzer accomplished and was a part of, were the Women's Suffrage Movement, and her part of being a leader in the movement allowing women to attend the College of Charleston. Her involvement in the movement to let women attend the college is her most well known feat. She made this a personal goal after World War I. Carrie gave a great speech to the College of Charleston in regards to letting women into college. Some of the speech said in 118 is "The old order changeth', and because of existing international, social, and economic conditions, the women of today, as the co-workers, partners, and guardians of precious civilization, are to be accorded this opportunity, so long ago accorded to men." The move to gain admission for women to the College of Charleston was spear headed by Carrie, which she was the executive board member of the administration. She instigated a petition from the federation to the college and, after more than a year of conferences with college officials, was notified that women would be accepted providing the federation would pay the salary for a woman matron and have provided funds for special facilities for women students. Carrie called a meeting at the Chamber of Commerce, and then considered men's exclusive territory and invited prominent speakers and she started a drive to collect necessary funds. She would walk the neighborhood during the hot summer in which her efforts were looked down upon. She wrote in one of her letters, "The fact that women, in that era, were asking for money was looked upon with amazement." By mid-summer of 118, her group had raised 1,500 dollars in order to have facilities made for the women. A newspaper gave some good quotes about Carrie and her involvement with the College of Charleston. One was based on her speeches given in 118 to exclusive male groups such as the Chambers of Commerce. Pierrine Smith Byrd, the colleges first female graduate in 1, says "Carrie thought a woman should be able to attend classes from elementary school to college without leaving Charleston." "She was very, very determined," said Mrs. Byrd, who lived in Greenwood. "She appeared before all the Charleston groups. They thought she was very bold and didn't want to let her speak." One quote from Carrie to the newspaper was, "You should have seen the expressions when I asked that women be admitted to the college. I felt like Henny Penny telling them the sky was falling." Another aspect of Carrie helping educate women to be independent and successful was her work training other young women to become kindergarten teachers. She also cared for her students and visited families to attempt to solve environmental problems of her students and scheduled physical examinations of the children.

Her movement in woman's suffrage and their right to vote was another great cause Carrie was involved in. She once told The News and Courier, "that getting men to listen to a woman in 118 was quite a feat." Her movement in women's rights even goes further back than when she advocated women in college. In 11, she and her sisters became members of the newly formed National Women's Party. She wrote letters to legislators urging them to pass the equal rights amendment and to treat women fairly. Women being able to gain the right to vote was a very important goal to Carrie and her sisters. She always handed out pamphlets or set up a booth at the corner of King and Broad Street advocating her cause of women's suffrage and the right to vote. For her efforts in women's suffrage and speaking out, which was not heard of during those days, she got put in the Hall of Fame from the Charleston Federation of Women's Clubs and she also won a plaque from the Charleston chapter of the National Organization for Women. The plaque read "With deep appreciation for contributions towards women's equality, from the Charleston NOW chapter."

Carrie had a great personality. She was considered a strong woman who believed that if you were going to accomplish anything, you had to start at the child's level. She was dedicated to what she believed in and it made a difference. William Pollitzer, Richard's son, says that all four Pollitzer children grew up with the belief that they should serve others. He says, "It was kind of expected of them and in a way, all of them did that." William, who is the nephew, also said, "Carrie struck me as a proper Victorian lady in her dress and attitude." He also said, "Although she was interested in the equal rights movement, she wasn't what you think of today as a liberated feminist." She was very much the little, old lady of the nineteenth century in that respect. She was known as Miss Carrie, since she was never married. She lived with her sister, Mabel, and they both belonged to the same cause of women's rights. Mabel and Carrie lived on Pitt Street together and were usually seen together. They must have been simple women since neither had a car. The personality of Carrie showed up in her letters. She was very proper and spoke well and educated in her writings. In the commentaries that were written by her family and friends, there was nothing negative to be said.

Carrie compared to other significant southern women that I have looked is she seems to be a little more accomplished and focused on making her and her children's lives better for the future of women. Fanny Kemble relates the most to her out of the women we have studied. Fanny was very independent and worked as well as educating herself to become what she wanted to be. She was a successful actress and showed great strength when she separated from her husband. Fanny fell victim to the unequal rights women had because she could not see her children or she did not receive any benefits from her husband financially. Fanny grew a hatred for the United States and soon tried to help out her own cause which was to not take part in the use of slavery for free labor. She did not advocate very much, but she really did not have much power. Carrie had the chance to advocate her cause while other women backed it up. Fanny would not have had as much support. The both were upper class white females living in the south dealing with issues facing their future.

The social activism of Carrie Pollitzer and her sisters are different then the stereotypes of southern club women. At a time when few women in the south were suffragists, Carrie identified with the National Women's Party. She came from a time when women were not allowed to be jurors until 167 and a time when the Nineteenth Amendment did not ratify until 16. She was one of the earliest and most tenacious supporters of the Equal Rights Amendment. She was a brave and strong woman by voicing her cause in public and in front of men. Many women during the time met in private. She managed women suffrage booths in the heart of the city's business district. By reading her letters and researching her accomplishments, I have concluded Carrie Pollitzer was a feminist who would forever bear her southern heritage. She was a white southern woman who came from an elite family, but she worked with and around as well as against regional stereotypes of gender, race, and class. She set a new path for southern lady hood. The only shortcomings that came from her letters were the lack of historical facts rather she wrote more on her opinions and what she was accomplishing. Her writing was often difficult to read as well.

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INSTRUCTIONS Arbitrarily decide on a day to do this assignment. Select a day when you will be interacting with a variety of people. You are going to record two interactions one in which you know the other fairly well, and the other in which you do not know the other very well. It may help you to keep a diary during the day and make notes of the interactions after they have occurred so you can go back and make comparisons. If you feel the interactions of which you are part are unnatural (in other words, prompted solely by this assignment), wait and record an instance that is more spontaneous.

INTERACTION 1

1. Interactants

a. Gender Composition (circle) M/M F/F M/F

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b. Familiarity with each other (circle)

1 4 5 6 7

Not at Very

all familiar Familiar

c. Age of Pair (circle)

• Within 1- years

• More than years, but less than 5 years

• More than 5 years difference in age

d. Status

• About the same

• You have higher status

• Other has higher status

e. Cultural Background

• Similar

• Somewhat different

• Very different

f. Describe the content of communication

The interaction I had with this person would be considered dyadic communication. This individual and myself had a casual conversation at a bar/restaurant one night to catch up with each other and discuss how school and life in general had be going. We conversed for around an hour about many different topics.

g. Describe the (setting) of interaction (Formal/informal; private/public; loud/quiet, etc)

The setting of this particular interaction was very informal. The restaurant/bar was very laid back and the atmosphere was likewise. The setting was for the most part private even though it took place in a very public venue. Our table was somewhat isolated so there were not too many distractions. This followed for the noise factor being that it was fairly quiet. There was background music as well as background noise from other tables but the bar was starting to shut down so for the most part things were not too loud.

. Attribution

a. Explain your judgments about whether you attributed the person's behavior to internal or external causes. Make sure you address the issues of consensus, consistency, distinctiveness, and controllability.

In our conversations, I found that the attributions I made on the person's behavior were due to internal causes as well as external. The person was of high consensus, high consistency, low distinctiveness, and seemed to act on a high controllability.

Consensus I concluded that the person with which I was having this conversation had a high consensus. This person acted in ways very similar to most everyone at the bar. The person was dressed relatively the same, carried on in relatively the same manor, and had a general laid back attitude much like most everyone at the setting. This led me to the conclusion that in dealing with consensus this person's behaviors were governed by external forces.

Consistency -- As far as consistency goes, the person seemed to act for the most part the same throughout the duration of the conversation. However, as a few drinks were consumed actions changed in the slightest bit but not enough to say that the actions were mainly controlled by external forces. From beginning to end the person with whom I was conversing was jovial, interested, and casual which with the exception of the slight changes by alcohol led me to the conclusion that this high consistency was attributed to internal causes.

Distinctiveness -- I found that the person with whom I was conversing was of low distinctiveness. I found this to be true because the manor in which this person acted was very similar to the ways in which they had acted in many different situations/conversations we had previously had. This person had a few drinks like they had always done in the past in different situations and carried on a care free attitude as this person normally does in most every situation they encounter. The person did not let the situation change the way they acted in the least. They also expected me to pick up the tab….as usual. Due to these, I found that the person's low distinctiveness was attributed to internal forces.

Controllability The person's control of situations seemed to be high. Most everything that happened in our conversation was controllable. Our topics to which we talked were mostly interjected by the person as was the setting in which we met. This person let few external forces dictate the situation which led me to conclude that the person's controllability issues were governed by mostly internal forces. However, our conversation did come to an end due to the external cause of the bar shutting down.

b. How did your attributions affect the way in which you listened to the person?

These attributions did have effects on how I listened to the person but had far fewer due to the fact that I was quite familiar with this person. I found that I was more in to talking to the person because they were of high consistency with their attitudes and personality which I previously liked. Thus I was glad to further carry on conversations with them. Also I liked that the person was in control of their actions and did not let external forces come in the way of our conversation. Also the fact that the person was of low distinctiveness reassured me that the person was who I thought they were and acting as I had liked in previous situations.

. Reflect on your motivations for forming you perceptions and making your attributions about the other person.

I found that most of my motivations for forming my perceptions were influenced by the fact that I had a general like for the person with whom I was conversing and thus I seemed, in so many words, to give them the benefit of the doubt.

Consider your motivations in terms of the following

a. Self-serving bias I think this bias held true in my conversation. I found that anything the person had discussed in which they had done well or something to which I agreed or liked that I perceived this to be due to their internal forces as did I find that anything bad they had done was because of external forces. They spoke of a test on which they had done well and I perceived this to them being smart, and not the teacher being easy. Also we spoke of them getting in the sorority they wanted and I concluded that this was also due only to internal forces.

b. Overattribution -- I don't feel that I had this attribution error. I knew the person well enough that I did not let characterisitics about one situation influence that on others. I feel I looked in this manor at the person fairly objectively.

c. Fundamental Attribution Error I feel that I may have made this error as well but not to too much of a degree. As I stated earlier I found that most of the situations were influence by internal causes not external ones, which is a product of this error. Because of the extent to which I knew this person I concluded that they did things because of who they are not because of the things around them.

4. How did these affect your perceptions and attributions? Why do you think this occurred?

I believe that these errors/biases affected my perceptions and attributions in the fact that I gave this person credit for who they were because of past experiences and because of mainly the belief of their internal forces. I believe my judgements were also made accordingly. This person received for the most part every benefit of the doubt and would have had to have done a lot to change my perspectives. I believe this occurred because of my past experience and relationships with the person as well as my general like and fondness of the person. I believe sometimes we let what we want to think take over what we actually think even if it is true or not.

Interaction

1. Interactants

a. Gender Composition (circle) M/M F/F M/F

b. Familiarity with each other (circle)

1 4 5 6 7

Not at Very

all familiar Familiar

c. Age of Pair (circle)

• Within 1- years

• More than years, but less than 5 years

• More than 5 years difference in age

d. Status

• About the same

• You have higher status

• Other has higher status

e. Cultural Background

• Similar

• Somewhat different

• Very different

f. Describe the content of communication

The interaction took place at a party for rush in which I was trying to get to know a few of the new people who might join the fraternity this fall. The conversation was for the most part small talk getting to know one another and discussing home towns, school, sports, people, and just general topics.

g. Describe the (setting) of interaction (Formal/informal; private/public; loud/quiet, etc)

The conversation took place at a party in a very informal setting. The setting was also very public being that there were a very large number of other people around. Also, the conversation took place in a relatively loud setting where there was much commotion and many other conversations going on around us. The conversation was for a fairly brief stint of time but much dialog took place.

. Attribution

a. Explain your judgments about whether you attributed the person's behavior to internal or external causes. Make sure you address the issues of consensus, consistency, distinctiveness, and controllability.

As in the first conversation, I found that I attributed the person's behavior to both internal and external causes. I was able to make many attributions in a relatively short period of time and found the first conversation useful to this one after analyzing it. I found the person with whom I was conversing to have a very high consensus, low consistency, low distinctiveness, and low controllability.

Consensus I found this person to have quite a high consensus. The person seemed to act like many of the other people that were in his situation. Other people in that situation in which I had spoken with seemed to act in relatively the same manor. The person started off more shy and opened up as time went on. The person seemed to try to act like others in a try to fit in so that they would feel comfortable. I found that this high level of consensus was most likely attributed to external forces of others.

Consistency In my conversations with this person, I concluded that they had a low consistency. The person to whom I was talking was inconsistent in the fact that they went from being shy to loquacious as the conversation progressed. As time went on in the conversation they grew more and more comfortable and became more and more apt to talk and respond which was quite contrary to the beginning of the conversation where they had little to say. I found this low consistency to be a product of external forces letting how others perceive them render how they interact and respond.

Distinctiveness -- I found that this person was inconsistent in nearly all the similar situations in which they faced which made them of low distinctiveness. In every situation they encountered with and older person to which they were unfamiliar they started off very shy and would later become more talkative. I found that this attribution of low distinctiveness can be attributed to internal forces of wanting to fit in and be accepted by the group or person to which they were talking.

Controllability I also found this person to have low controllability. This person let me dictate nearly every thing that went on and let me control when the conversation began and ended. The person remained very conscious of the events going on outside and let forces outside of his own dictate what actions took place. This attribution can be contributed to external forces as the subject never let any internal forces govern what went on.

b. How did your attributions affect the way in which you listened to the person?

These attributions greatly affected how I listened to this person. Because I did not know this person very well I was quick to judge them on these attributions. I found myself less and less apt to listen to the person because they did not have much to add to the conversation (lack of internal forces). I like to converse with people who step up and take control and don't let all external forces govern what goes on and this fact led me to be less interested in the conversation that took place.

. Reflect on your motivations for forming you perceptions and making your attributions about the other person.

I found that because I did not know this person very well I did not have to much motivation for my perceptions. However, due to this fact I found that I could make much more attributions and perceptions whether they be right or wrong. I feel that I didn't have to much bias in the situation and that my perceptions were fairly accurate.

Consider your motivations in terms of the following

a. Self-serving bias I feel that I didn't have too much of a self-serving bias at the beginning of the conversation. Going into the conversations I didn't have any preconceived notions on this persons character. However, after the conversation progressed I found that this changed a little and I thought that maybe some of the person's internal behaviors were negatively motivated.

b. Overattribution Likewise I feel that going into the conversation I didn't express overattribution. Since I knew little about this person beforehand I felt I didn't have a reason to make an overatrribution. As the conversation progressed I feel I may have done this slightly as I light some negative feelings I may have developed influence other characteristics that the person possessed.

c. Fundamental Attribution Error I feel that in this conversation I may have committed this error quite a bit. I feel that I over emphasized the subjects internal factors and undervalued the external factors. I concluded that many of the things that took place in the conversation were internally motivated but after further deliberation I feel that external influences were quite significant and anyone put in the persons same situation may act accordingly as external influences way heavy on the situation takeing place.

4. How did these affect your perceptions and attributions? Why do you think this occurred?

I believe that these affected my perceptions and attributions in the since that I maybe didn't give this person the benefit of the doubt. The fact that I didn't know them made me less likely to give me a good perception of the person. As I stated in the fundamental attribution error section that I put to much emphasis on the internal characteristics where maybe the external characteristics weighed just as much if not more heavily. I feel that this occurred because of the fact I didn't know this person as well and wasn't as willing to accept the person for who they were.

CONCLUSIONS

1. What were the DIFFERENCES in perception between a familiar and an unfamiliar other?

There were many differences in my perceptions between the familiar and unfamiliar other. First and foremost, I was a lot more apt to give positive perceptions toward the person I knew well and already had formed some positive opinions. The factors to which my perceptions were made, mainly internal and external forces, were quite different between the different cases in which I spoke of earlier. In the first case with the familiar other I was much more likely to give the benefit of the doubt and to give positive attributions and perceptions whereas in the latter I was much more unlikely to do so and was almost looking for a reason to give negative ones. I found that he two cases were different in the cases of consistency and controllability. I also found that in the case of the familiar other I was much more leaniant in my judging and took a lot more time to make conclusions whereas in the unfamiliar case I was quick to judge and much more stern in my perceptions.

. What were the SIMILARITES in perception between a familiar and an unfamiliar other?

There were also a few similarities in my perceptions between the familiar and unfamiliar other. The first similarity that comes to mind is that in both perceptions internal and external forces were used in my conclusions even thought maybe not the same in each case. Both cases were similar in that they had the same instance of high consensus and low distinctiveness. I also find it very important that both cases were similar in the fact that after analyzing the conversations my perceptions were maybe a little different than the ones I initially thought that I had made. After further analyzing each case I found that some behaviors I thought were internal turned out to be external and vise versa. Also I found it similar that in both cases I made critical attribution errors to which I pointed out earlier in the assignment.

GRADE PRESENTATION GRADE

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More than five millennia ago, a human hand carved the first written word. This written word started the written history. This first written history occurred in Sumer in the city of Uruk. Uruk was located in ancient Mesopotamia along the Euphrates River. The Sumerians created agriculture fed by canals which greatly lessened their reliance on hunting and gathering so they were able to settle down and stay in one location therefore forming communities.

They soon domesticated flocks and herds for predictable yields of eggs, mil, flesh, leather, and wool. The Sumerians also invented the hoe and later the plow. Among other inventions, they invented wheels, ships, metallurgy, and wheel turned baked pottery. With these inventions Sumer had risen to dominate all of Mesopotamia and began trading as far away as the Nile Valley. The Sumerians even wrote manuals on agriculture and how to brew beer. The Sumerians also had a book that they grouped drawing and descriptions of their Kings in. but all of these innovations that now indicated to us that the Sumerians were developing and evolving had not importance to them because what they knew and saw every day was all that they had ever known. In other words prior to the writing there was no way to preserve history.

All ancient Sumerian stories seemed to have no clear beginning, middle, or end; they all seemed to just stay in the middle. One of the greatest pieces of literature during this time is the Epic of Gilgamesh. This is about a King of Uruk who flourished around the third millennium BC. It is believed that Gilgamesh was Semitic rather than Sumerian. The epic begins by describing the splendor of Uruk. Gilgamesh was only part human, his mother was the cow Goddess Ninsum. He was fierce like a bull and as strong as one too but he also had other skills such as engineering and navigation skills. The epic revealed that Sumerian life was highly competitive and Gilgamesh greatly enjoyed competing with anyone who he came across. The people of Uruk complained to Aruru (the universal mother) that they needed a break from Gilgamesh's competitiveness and bullying of the boys and bedding with the girls. They begged her to send Gilgamesh someone who suited him. So she created Enkidu who lived with animals until one day he engages in sex whit Shamhat who was paced for his eyes to see so he would stop protecting the animals and let the hunter kill them. After becoming God like through sex he has to go to Uruk and live among the other people and Gods.

Here he meets Gilgamesh and they fall in love with each other. Later, together they slat a monster which attracts the attention of the Goddess Ishtar to Gilgamesh. She wants him to marry her but Gilgamesh refuses her proposal. This infuriated Ishtar so she sent a bull to destroy him. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat the bull but now Enkidu must die.

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Cahill concludes this chapter by discussing the moon and the sky of Sumer. The summerians built huge temples as close to the sky as they could. The moon and the night sky fascinated many of the Sumerians. The moon when full aroused criminals, induced labor of both humans and animals, and controlled the rising and falling of the waters. For this the moon was thought to have been a God, mainly because the Sumerians did not understand it.

During the second millennium a family of Ur known as Terah's family emerged. In Genesis it is told that "Terah begot Avrah, Nahor, and Haran." Avram is also translated into Abram which later becomes Abraham. Avram married Sarai who was barren and Nahor married Milcah the daughter of Haran. Terah tool Avram his son and Lot the son of Haran, Lots sons, and Sarai to leave Ur and go to Canaan. They settled in Harran where Terah eventually died. Soon after his father's death a voice spoke to Avram and told him to go to a land that was unknown and his name shall be made great and he would be made father of a great nation. So Avram went and took with him Lot, Sarai and all their grain. Upon reaching Canaan God identifies this land as the promise land. From this point on each time God spoke to Avram his promise grew more concrete. Later famine strikes Canaan so Avram heads to Egypt here he allows someone to attempt to kill his wife to save himself.

Avram decided that since he had no child that he would leave his kingdom to his chief servant. Sarai soon becomes pregnant after God reveals to Avram that at the old age of ninety nine he is to become a father by Sarai whom is ninety. God then reveals to Avram that from that point forward every male child at the age of eight days old shall be circumcised. So Avram begin the circumcisions. God told Sara (her name has been changed by God) that he was going to allow her to be impregnated she laughed. When the child is born they name him Yitzhak. God again speaks to Avraham (name given to Avram by God) and asks him to take his newborn child to a mountain a in the land of Moriyya and offer him up as an offering at the mountain that will be disclosed to Avraham at a later date. So Avraham went and he offered his only son at the mountain. God refused the offering. Here Avraham built a famous offering site at Shekhem. Sara dies in Hebron and Avraham purchases the cave of Makhpela build her sanctuary. Not long after Sara's death Avraham dies. Yitzhak had married Rivka and had twin boys Esav and Yaakov (Israel). Israel is the last of the patriarchal figures to which God speaks to.

Joseph is one of the 1 sons of Jacob. He is Jacob's favorite son, which creates jealousy and resentment amongst Joseph's brothers. Jacob's attitude toward Joseph is symbolized by his present to Joseph of a beautiful multicolored coat. One day, Joseph's brothers conspire to throw Joseph in a pit and then sell him to Midianite traders who bring him to Egypt and sell him to the chief steward of the Pharaoh. Joseph's brothers tell Jacob that a savage beast devoured Joseph. To make their story convincing they soak Joseph's coat of many colors in sheep's blood and show it to Jacob. Once in Egypt, Joseph is well treated and put in charge of the household of Potiphar, the chief steward of the Pharaoh. All goes well until Potiphar's wife, angry of Joseph's rejection of her attentions, accuses Joseph of trying to seduce her. Joseph is then put in prison. While in prison, Joseph gains a reputation for successfully interpreting dreams. He is eventually released when the Pharaoh is told of Joseph's skills and wants Joseph to interpret his dreams. Once again, Joseph is successful. He interprets the Pharaoh's dreams explaining that Egypt will have 7 years of plenty and then 7 years of famine. The Pharaoh is greatly pleased with Joseph and puts him in charge of the pharaoh's court and all of Egypt. When the famine years hit, Joseph is put in charge of rations. The famine extended to Canaan so, Jacob sends his sons to Egypt to procure rations. Joseph recognizes his brothers, but they do not recognize him.

Moses was sent down a river in a basket because Pharoah had ordered all Jewish male children to be drowned in the Nile River. The Torah and The Bible tell us that The Pharaoh's daughter discovers Moses in his basket. Miriam, Moses' sister steps out of hiding and asks the Pharaoh's daughter if she would like a Hebrew woman to nurse the baby. The princess says yes and Miriam calls Moses' mother. She raises him till his teen years when she brings him to Pharaoh's daughter, at which time she names him Moses.

When Moses was a bit older he comes across an Egyptian beating a Hebrew. Defending his kinsman, Moses strikes and kills the Egyptian. Moses realizes that others know he has killed an Egyptian. When Pharoah learns of the murder, he orders Moses killed. Moses flees to Midian. It is here that Moses rescues the daughter of the local priest of Midian, named Reuel but known as Jethro. Moses marries his daughter, Zipporah who gives birth to a son named Gershom.

Moses, while tending his flock comes across a blazing bush that wondrously is not consumed by the flame. The Lord calls to him and tells him to remove his sandals and Moses, afraid to look at God, hides his face. God calls to Moses telling him to return to Egypt to free the Israelites from bondage. Moses fears that no one will believe him. In The Torah and The Bible God tells him to say that his name is Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh, which means, "I will be what I will be." He further says the he is "The God of your fathers, of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob." (Exodus 15) Moses expresses doubts and God reassures Moses that he will succeed and that the Israelites will believe God has sent him. God demonstrates to Moses how he will convince the people by turning Moses' stick into a snake, his skin to leprosy, and promises that if the Israelites still do not believe him that he should take water from the Nile, pour it into the sand and it will turn to blood. Moses continues to protest that he is not deserving because he is slow of speech. God assures him that his brother Aaron will be his mouthpiece.

Moses meets his brother Aaron in the dessert and together they return to Egypt. In Egypt Moses shows the signs God gave him and the Israelites believe him. Moses and Aaron approach pharaoh and tell him that their God has ordered Israelites to celebrate a festival in the wilderness. Pharaoh says no and responds by doubling their workload. The Israelites in their anger blame Moses and Aaron for their extra work. Moses asks God why he is bringing harm to his people and God reassures him that everything will be all right. God once again sends Moses to reassure the Israelites that he speaks for the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and that through a series of signs he will convince Pharoah to let the Israelites leave Egypt. So once again Moses and Aaron approach Pharaoh and ask him to let the Israelites go. God hardens Pharaoh's heart and Pharaoh refuses. A series of 10 plagues are released upon Egypt. 1) All the waters in Egypt are turned to blood and all the fish die. ) Frogs infest Egypt. ) Lice crawl over every man, woman and beast that lived in the land 4) A cloud of insects attack the people. 5) A severe pestilence strikes the livestock of the Egyptians. 6) Egyptian people are covered in boils. 7) Thunder, hail and fire stuck the land of the Egyptians. 8) Locusts cover the sky and fields. ) Darkness falls for days. 10) Every first-born Egyptian child dies including Pharaoh's son. Finally, Pharoah is convinced and the Israelites leave Egypt.

After the Israelites depart, God once again hardens Pharaoh's heart and Pharoah sends an army after the Jews. Once again the Israelites blame Moses for their hardships. Moses reassures them and strikes the sea with his staff and the sea opens up a path of dry land for them to cross. As the Egyptians begin to cross, God orders Moses to stretch out his hand and the dry path closes and drowns the Egyptians. The Israelites wandered in the Sinai desert for 40 years. After three months the Israelites arrived at the foot of the holy mountain of Sinai. A cloud encompasses the mountain and God descends into the cloud. God calls to Moses and Moses climbs up the mountain. God speaks and delivers to Moses the Ten Commandments. Since Moses is gone for a long time, the people begin to lose faith and want to make a God of their own. In the Torah and Bible, Aaron tells them to bring all the gold jewelry they have, and cast it into a mold. Aaron molds it into a golden calf, and the people worship this golden calf. When Moses returns he is infuriated. He throws down the tablets and they shatter. Then he takes the calf that the people made and burns it. He grinds the calf to powder and puts it into the people's water, and makes them drink it. Once again, he goes up the mountain and writes down the commandments.

The Jews continue to wander through the desert toward the Promised Land for the remainder of the 40 years. Moses is allowed to see the Promised Land but not enter. He climbs to the top of Mt. Nebo, which overlooks Canaan. God says, "This is the land which I swore to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. I will give it to your offspring. I have let you see it with your own eyes, but you shall not cross there."

The children of Israel were camped east of the Jordan River. Mourning for Moses was now over and it was time to enter the Promised Land. When God gave the command to begin the conquest, He made a two-fold promise to Joshua "No man will be able to stand before you all the days of your life;" "I will not leave you or forsake you." Then God gave Joshua a two-fold admonition "Be strong and of good courage;" "Observe to do according to all the law which Moses my servant commanded you." The book describes the conquest and division of the land of Canaan and is set against the background of the corrupt and brutal features of Canaanite religion. The Canaanite worship included prostitution of both sexes, infant sacrifice, and other evils for which God commanded the Israelites to exterminate the inhabitants of Canaan. The conquest by Joshua and Israel was God's judgment upon them for their wickedness.

The Philistines, who seemed to be of Aegean origin, settled on the southern coastal plain of Canaan/Land of Israel, in the area that later became known as Philistia. Though bringing unique aspects in their material culture (such as Aegean style pottery, cultic objects and architecture, and political organization), they quite rapidly adopted local Canaanite language and culture, and within some 150 years to a large extent were highly assimilated with the surrounding cultures. With their arrival, they did usher in important innovations, introducing for example efficient military and political organization and superior iron weaponry. The Philistine political organization appears to have been based on a loose alliance of the five main cities, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath and Gaza.

David means ``well-loved. Born in Bethlehem, David was the youngest son of Jesse. David was a shepherd who watched over his fathers flock of sheep both day and night, and was selected to be the next king of Israel while still a young boy and was re-anointed at Hebron. Power against weakness, evil versus good, experience vs. inexperience the story of David fighting Goliath has all of these elements. He went on to fight and win against a vastly superior force. After defeating Goliath, Davids popularity grew by leaps and bounds. Eventually King Saul felt threatened by this to the extent that he sought to kill David. David ran for his life, hiding in the wilderness. Several times he had the opportunity to kill King Saul, but didnt (put his hand against Gods annointed). David was very successful in nearly everything he did. David wrote many of the Psalms. From these we can see the type of heart that he had. He was both a man after Gods own heart, and prone to sin (including adultery) like the rest of us. Yet he was genuinely repentant and went on to do many more great things for God. From Davids initial selection as the next king to his fighting the giant, Goliath, while David was still a boy, David was often the unlikely choice, the least of the candidates, the real underdog.

Solomon, son of David, becomes king in about 70 BC. He too reigns for about 40 years. Solomon builds the Temple in honor of God. The work is completed in about 60 BC. But, Solomon eventually turns away from God and worships false gods. Solomons reign was marked by a constant tension between two conflicting orientations faithfulness to the God of Israel and fulfillment of the Judaic religious precepts, against pervasive foreign influences that penetrated the kingdom as a result of the obligations imposed by the grandiose nature of the kingdom. Solomons reign was marked by a constant tension between two conflicting orientations faithfulness to the God of Israel and fulfillment of the Judaic religious precepts, against pervasive foreign influences that penetrated the kingdom as a result of the obligations imposed by the grandiose nature of the kingdom.

Nathan, in Hebrew meaning God has given, was a prophet of God who served King David and his son and successor King Solomon. He was a wise and steadfast servant of God, and of the Israelite monarchy, who was often consulted by the kings. He was also fearless; it was Nathan who rebuked David after the incident with Bathsheba, and it was Nathan who intervened during the attempted palace coup by Adonijah. It was through Nathan that The Lord decreed to David to make the preparations for the building of the original Temple. It was Nathan who The Lord sent to rebuke King David after his adultery with Bathsheba, and the arranged killing of her husband Uriah. When Davids son Adonijah attempted to succeed David as king in place of Solomon, it was Nathan who revealed the plot to the king and had it stopped.

Jeremiah is known as the weeping prophet. His message consisted of stern rebuke for the sins of Israel and of warning that divine judgment could not be averted. Through him God sought first to turn the hearts of the people back to Him, and failing that, to secure their co-operation with His purpose in the Captivity, which came not as retributive punishment but as remedial discipline. At this crucial period of history Jeremiahs call for submission to the Babylonians earned for him the implacable hatred of rulers and people alike, and he suffered much at their hands. Repeatedly he wept over the sins of Israel, over the doom that threatened his beloved nation, and over the harsh treatment he suffered at the hands of the leaders. Jeremiah had cause for weeping if any prophet ever had, but he bore his message faithfully.

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It seems you can't open a newspaper these days without reading another article about some company going through a "downsizing", a kinder euphemism for layoffs. The concept of "doing the right thing" when downsizing and those contemplating downsizing should consider this Every action taken should be consistent with their values. If showing respect is something valued during good times, it should become particularly important during the bad.

The employee's obligation to the firm is a moral duty to work towards the goals of the firm and avoid any activity that might harm those goals. To be unethical, basically, is to deviate from those goals to serve ones own interest in ways that, if illegal, are counted as a form of "white collar crime". And the firm's duties to the employee is a basic moral obligation that the employer has toward employee's according to the rational view of the firm, is to provide them with the compensation they have freely and knowingly agreed to receive in exchange for their services. There are two main issues related to this obligation

The fairness of wages

And the fairness of employee working conditions.

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The above employee/employer obligations to each other has always been a 'given' and upheld by myself and the employers I've worked for. However, even in bad times such as going through a company 'downsize' these obligations should remain for both! My personal experiences with corporate downsizing and eventual layoff from my last two employment's was something I never really thought about in a personal sort of way before. I had always believed if you found a job that you really liked doing then you should stay with that organization for as long as you could, especially if the organization treats you will in return. Now it seems that philosophy is 'old hat' given the way organizations now operate. My bank position with Bank of America/Security Pacific National Bank lasted over twelve years and my healthcare position with Aetna/Prudential HealthCare lasted over five years before being cut short by company mergers and acquisitions.

Downsizing seems like a toxic solution any firm or organization could make and that's especially true if you're on the employee side of things. How downsized employees are treated can directly affect the morale and retention of valued high-performing employees who are not downsized; at least the one's not effected in the beginning of a corporate downsize. I 'm still in communication with co-workers from my last job with Aetna and to this date they are still laying off employees in small groups! The start of the downsize at Aetna began about 8 months prior to my layoff and was very difficult for myself and I'm sure for the rest of my co-workers who had remained as well, seeing fellow long time co-workers being let go at the beginning. When working with someone for as long as I had they become part of your 'family' by attending many corporate functions and meeting various members of their family which makes it even more personal. So it was very difficult to motivate yourself to go to work every day to find out whom the next employee got the 'axe'. Through the downsizing process, lower management and the core of my fellow co-workers were never given any advanced warning as to who the next one was. When it did happen, as in my case, someone from our HR department would come up from behind while you were working at your desk and tap you on the shoulder saying "quickly gather up your personal belongings and follow me! Fortunately, I had previously prepared and had my belongings in a box waiting for this occasion to arrive. No human being cannot help but have a negative effect on you personally and the quality/quantity of your work output. Having been responsible to maintain our units production reports at the beginning of the downsize I saw this effect firsthand.

Make no mistake, downsizing is an extremely difficult phase not only for the employee's but I'm sure taxes all of management team's resources as well and that no one looks forward to downsizing.

Many otherwise first-rate executives downsize so poorly by ignoring all the signs pointing to a layoff until it's too late to plan adequately, then action must be taken immediately to reduce the financial drain of excess staff. The extremely difficult decisions of who must be laid off, how much notice they will be given, the amount of severance pay, and how far the company will go to help the laid-off employee find another job are given sometimes less than adequate attention. These are critical decisions that have as much to do with the future of any organization as they do with the future of the laid-off employee. What usually happens is that these decisions are handed to the legal department, whose primary objective is to reduce the risk of litigation, not to protect the morale and intellectual capital of the organization. Consequently, downsizing is often executed with a brisk, compassionless efficiency that leaves laid-off employees angry and surviving employees feeling helpless and demotivated. Helplessness is the enemy of high achievement and produces a work environment of withdrawal, risk-averse decisions, severely impaired morale, and excessive blaming. All of these put a stranglehold upon an organization that would now desperately need to excel. (In my case, in the area of customer service and retention thereof)

If open communication is a corporate value, it becomes more important during downsizing. How you tell the laid-off employees and how you communicate to your stockholders, the community, the staff that stays are all very important issues that need to be properly communicated too! Again, how a company treats the people who are leaving sends a strong message about how it will treat the people who are staying. This advice holds true for outside stakeholders as well. If I were a potential vendor/client reading about unethical or poorly handled lay-offs, I would be wary about extending business/credit to that company and likewise with current or potential investors. This cannot be emphasized enough, how a company treats downsized employees has a very much impact on a business' reputation and affects investor's assessments of whether financial support is warranted.

'Downsizing' is a hot button topic with companies left with no other alternative and will probably be on the horizon for a lot more businesses as it seems there has been a wave of mergers and acquisitions sweeping the country as per the following article in the Wall Street Journal

Mergers and acquisitions are back - with a vengeance - in the new millenium. Across the global business landscape, some $1 trillion in M&A; deals were completed last year. That figure includes one hundred transactions of $1 billion or more in the United States, a new record for deals of that magnitude in a single year. Those megamergers, combined with thousands of smaller transactions around the country, reached $650 billion, "nearly twice the dollar volume and the number of deals of the peak year of the 10s."

In order to understand why companies choose to 'downsize', we need to look at the big picture of why companies choose to merge and/or acquire other companies. What's going on? Why are so many companies in a variety of industries - aerospace, banking, communications, entertainment, manufacturing, railroads, retailing, and healthcare - opting to join forces with their former competitors? Professor Michael Jensen, a finance expert explains, M&A's are often associated with downsizing and what he describes as "the freeing of equity trapped in old-line, inefficiently managed firms outmoded control systems and nonfunctional governance systems". In the 180s, Jensen said "there were many more takeovers, mergers, leveraged buyouts, and restructuring intended to create efficiency and value. While some of this is happening now, little of today's hostile corporate-control activity is undertaken by those who were usually called 'raiders' in the eighties - entrepreneurs who were putting their own money and reputations on the line". Jensen believes that most current mergers undertaken are to reduce excess capacity and combine related services (i.e. Chemical/Chase merger in the banking industry) would ultimately be successful. And those associated with growth and so-called synergies - such as the Time Warner acquisition of Turner - will ultimately be viewed as unwise. Today's activity, he notes, is more like the 'disastrous' merger wave of the 160's which saw large firms run by managers who, with little of their own money at risk, were spending corporate resources on ill-conceived diversification and empire-building campaigns. He concludes, "Unfortunately, too much of the current M&A; activity falls into the latter category".

Professor Lynn Paine, an expert on corporate responsibility issues, notes that mergers and acquisitions involve a wide array of ethical questions, some of which relate to the degree of 'fit' between the value systems of the merging firms. "A mismatch can sometimes lead to serious problems, such as when one firm invests heavily in employees and the other focuses mainly on shareholders and/or customers". This concept of "The Caring Organization" was discussed on page 4 of 'Business Ethics, Concepts and Cases by Manuel G. Velasquez which states, "that business organizations in which such caring relationships flourish will exhibit better economic performance than the organization that restricts itself to the contractual and power relationships of the rational and political organization".

A secondary category of ethical issues that Paine also notes involves questions arising from the actual M&A transaction. "Some really vexing issues surface in the course of these deals in which management must decide for example, when to disclose plans for the merger, what restrictions to place on insider use of information, what counts as fair and proper accounting and taxation; and how to treat employees who may lose their jobs". In M&A's, that cross borders, these issues can be particularly difficult because of cultural and legal differences. For example, the legal definition of 'redundant employees' varies widely as do requirements for severance arrangements. In the face of such differences, managers of the merging companies have to wrestle with what is fair to the different sets of employees and what will help build a cohesive organization with a single set of ethical standards going forward".

Again, this concept of "The Ethics of Political Tactics" was discussed on page 487 of 'Business Ethics, Concepts and Cases by Manuel G. Velasquez which states, "Utilitarian principles require that managers pursue those goals that will produce the greatest social benefits and the least social harm".

"M&A'd companies have too often seen questions about who will run a postdeal company not fully answered in advance", so says Professor Michael Beer, an expert in organizational effectiveness and change. "Executives from each side may have different assumptions about which strategy and management practices will be best for the new company. These issues are often hidden and not discussed during initial negotiations. After the merger executives from one company may end up feeling that executives from the other company have taken over. All of these human forces can destroy the potential economic value of the merger". And goes on to suggest that cross-company task forces be established to design the structures, systems, and processes needed to support the vision for the new entity. "Only a well-conceived process for integration and a spirit of partnership can prevent a clash of cultures".

I have seen from the readings and research I have done on this matter (some documented in this paper) that an M&A'd company must legally and ethically have their 'house' in order before proceeding with a corporate downsize; which will be an inevitable given the fact that there will be many more M&As to come. They can never act as if nothing has happened after a layoff in which the less said about it, the better; and with luck, everyone will just forget and move on, why keep the past alive? The reality is surviving employees will talk about what's happened whether the management team and/or organization doesn't. When management refuses to acknowledge what has really taken place, it appears emphatically heartless, only feeding the employees' sense of helplessness. If management won't talk about it even after the fact, what else is it hiding? My recent experience with Aetna is proof, as we were not given many details on the 'downsizing' move from our corporate office back east! The more a company tries to suppress these discussions and act as if nothing has happened, the more subversive the discussion becomes. Remaining employees will act as a consequence of what has happened regardless of whether the management does!

On the other hand, from my experience being laid-off from Security Pacific Bank, recovery from a layoff can be greatly hastened if management and employees are allowed to speak their minds freely about what or will happen. We were given opportunity as a team of surviving employees to pull together and renew ties through the bank's employee newsletter column called "Where Are They Now". Through this newsletter we were able to stay in touch with one another by being notified of special get-togethers such as 'pot luck' picnics held in the homes of various co-workers. We also could make announcements when we found jobs either through the bank or an outside one! Even though this was soon discontinued through lack of interest, it was still the thought of a 'caring' company that was the most remembered.

To downsize effectively you have to have empathy with the people who are losing their jobs. An organization needs to keep the following few key principles in mind, not they won't completely eliminate the dangers of downsizing, but will help to avoid the common pitfalls of a poorly planned layoff per the article 'Downsizing With Dignity' by Alan Downs and his book "Business The Ultimate Resource

Is the Problem too Many People or too Little Profit?

This is the critical first question to ask before any layoff. Using a layoff solely as a cost cutting measure is utterly foolish throwing away valuable talent and organizational learning by dumping employees only makes a bad situation worse. When your business lacks revenue, annihilating intellectual capital and thus reducing the efficiency of remaining resources as well as the potential for future growth is not the solution.

If the answer is too many employees, then you've begun the process of a well-thought-out strategy for change. To legitimately determine if you have too many employees, look at the organization's business plan, not its head count. Ask what product and services are likely to be profitable and what talent you will need to run the new organization; these will help an organization to plan for a post-layoff future. Resolving these issues will enable a quick turnaround from the inevitable negative effects of downsizing to positive growth in value and efficiency.

What will the Post-Layoff Company Look Like?

Having a clear, well-defined vision of the company is imperative before the layoff is executed. Management should know what it wants to accomplish, where the emphasis will be in the new organization, and what staff will be needed.

Without being directed according to a clear vision of the future, the new organization is likely to carry forward some of the same problems that initially created the need for the layoff. Unfortunately, many managers underestimate the momentum of the old organization to recreate the same problems anew. Unless there is a clearly defined, shared vision of the new company among the entire management team, the past will be likely to sabotage the future and create a cycle of repeated layoffs with little improvement in organizational efficiency.

Always Respect People's Dignity

The methods employed in many poorly executed layoffs treat employees like children. Information is withheld and doled out. Managers' control over their employees is violated. Human resource representatives scurry around from one hush-hush meeting to another. How management treats laid-off employees is how it vicariously treats remaining employees - everything you do in a layoff is done in the arena, with everyone observing. How laid-off employees are treated is how surviving employees assume they will be treated.

Why this matters is because successfully planning for the new organization will keep it going and improve its results. You must keep that exceptional talent, who are also the employees most marketable to other organizations. When they see the company treating laid-off employees poorly, they'll start looking for a better place to work, fearing their heads will be next to roll.

Respect the Law

While it's important not to allow the legal department to design a layoff, it's nevertheless important that the employment laws be respected as well. In different countries such laws include entitlements tied to civil rights, age discrimination, disabilities, worked adjustment, and retraining. These laws are important and should be respected for what they intend as well as what they prescribe. If the organization has planned the lay-off according to business needs, and not on head count or seniority, then there should be no problem upholding the law. There will almost always be legal problems when the layoff is based on factors other than business needs.

In summary, treat all employees with respect. Communicate too much rather than withhold information.

Research applicable laws and follow the spirit of the legislation and afterward, give employees the psychological space to accept, and discuss, what has happened.

In conclusion, there are two important factors to keep in mind when planning a layoff

Respecting employee dignity

Business planning

No one, from the mailroom to the boardroom, enjoys downsizing; but when the need for a reduction in staff is unavoidable, a layoff can be accomplished in such a way that the problem is fixed and the organization excels.

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Abstract

According to Grice's theory, people follow the Cooperative Principle in conversation. But actually because of the politeness£¬we communicate usually more than we say explicitly. In this paper, through the introduction of the Cooperative Principle and its violation, this paper further discusses the Polite Principle and its application in conversation, and introduces how to adhere to the Polite Principle to save face for each other and develop the conversation. What's more important, this paper further discusses the importance of the Polite Principle and poses the methods of obeying the Polite Principle in education. The investigation of this aspect has its profound value in contemporary education.

Key words the Cooperative Principle, the Polite Principle, the face-saving theory, education

The Polite Principle and Its Application in Education

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Introduction

Traditionally, teachers and school administrators make decisions and rules, and then impose them on students. But contemporary education requires the new relationship between teachers and students. In this new type of relation, teachers and students enjoy the equal status. The responsibility of teachers is to build the bridge that leads the students to success. The students are both the object and the subject of education. They are also sociable and thinking, not just the 'products' of education. So in order to make the students be educated, they should first be respected. But in what way the students can be respected?

P.Grice's theory of Cooperative Principle claims that we should follow the principle to develop our conversations. But we can't notice that the speakers often violate them. Why? In their research, Brown and Levinson found that was because of politeness. In order to cooperative in our communication, people should follow the Polite Principle to save face for the others. For the cooperation of education, teachers should also be polite to give the respect to the students. That's to say, the Polite Principle also plays an important role in contemporary education.

Demonstration

A. The Cooperative Principle and its violation

P. Grice believes that there must be some mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances. He suggests that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of convention. This is what he calls the Cooperative Principle. And in order to explain further the Cooperative Principle, he borrows from the German philosopher Immanuel Kant four categories quantity, quality, relation, and manner. That is, the Cooperative Principle is specified from these four aspects. And the content of each category is known as maxim the maxim of Quantity, the maxim of Quality, the maxim of Relevance and the maxim of Manner.

But in the process of language using, we usually come across some sentences that are used in actual situations and have some extra meaning. We can always see that speakers do not always follow these maxims; in fact they often violate them. But that is not the point. The important thing is that whether the speaker follows or violates these maxims, he produces some implicature---a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance. For example, according to the maxim of Quantity, if I say, 'the flag is white.' It has the implicature that 'the flag is only white; not red, blue and white', otherwise, I should have said so. Inferences also arise from the assumption that the maxim of Manner is being observed. For example, events are often told in the order of their occurrence. Thus ' Li hit Wang and Wang hit Li ' would be interpreted differently from 'Wang hit Li and Li hit Wang '. When any of the maxims is blatantly violated that the hearer knows that it is being violated, the conversational implicatures arise. For instance, 'is this your pen?' which appears to be a question about the ownership of a pen, may be used as a request to mean 'may I use your pen?' or as a reminder meaning ' you've left behind your pen', or as an order meaning 'pick it up'. How can this be possible? Why the speaker violate the Cooperative Principle to express in an indirect and implicit way. What is their purpose to do so?

B. Polite Principle and FST

Though we can't say that the violation of the Cooperative Principle and the production of the conversational implicature are all because of the demand of the politeness. In many cases, it is really the consideration of politeness that causes the speaker to do so. Leech (1880) has given the following examples

E.g.1 A We'll miss Bill and Agatha, won't we?

B Well, we'll all miss Bill.

E.g. Parent Someone's eaten the icing off the cake.

Child It wasn't me.

In Example 1, obviously B violated the maxim of Quantity, A used the tag question to aim to get B's agreement or disagreement about his opinion, 'we'll miss Bill and Agatha.' But B's reply just confirmed A's opinion partly, 'well, we'll all miss Bill.' This was not because that B was short of information. He can completely add the sentence 'but not Agatha' and made the information that he offered, more complete. But he didn't do so. Instead, he intentionally made A feel that there was something he had hold back. The blatant violation of the maxim of Quantity can be only explained that it is because of politeness. B doesn't want to displease someone overtly.

Example is typically the dialogue between the parent and the child. In fact, the parent knew clearly who has eaten the icing. But he didn't blame the child directly and employed an indefinite pronoun 'someone', only to refer that someone has eaten the icing. So he violated the maxim of Quantity and made his expression be polite.

Politeness is a sociocultural phenomenon, roughly to be defined as showing, or appearing to show, consideration of others. Politeness can thus be seen as one of the basic social guidelines for human interaction. The goal of politeness can then be described as reflecting or realizing the social or interpersonal function of language with politeness being 'a system of interpersonal relations designed to facilitate interaction by minimizing the potential for conflict and confrontation inherent in all human interchange. Just like the above two examples, the speaker express himself in a tactful or an indirect way instead of using the impolite words to the listener.

For many researchers, politeness is a feature of language in use. Thus Brown and Levinson (187) and Leech (18) stressed the importance of politeness as a contextualised phenomenon. Further, it is generally accepted that politeness is a pervasive feature in human communication.

Based on Brown and Levinson's Polite Principle, influenced by Grice's Cooperative Principle, Leech has anew concluded and classified the Polite Principle. It can be classified into the following maxims Tact Maxim, Generosity Maxim, Approbation Maxim, Modest Maxim, Agreement Maxim, Sympathy Maxim.

In conversation, the Cooperative Principle adjusts the content of the utterance and makes the conversation goes on. And the Polite Principle has more effect of adjusting the utterance. It can defend the equivalent status and the friendly relationship of the speaker and the listener. Only under this premise, people can communicate with each other. If there is no politeness, it is impossible to make an effective communication. In order to stick to the Polite Principle, people even can sacrifice the maxim of the Cooperative Principle. Give an example, people sometimes tell lies to refuse the invitation. Though everyone knows the lie, it is more polite to tell lie than to refuse the invitation directly. As a 'real-world goal', politeness can be interpreted as the genuine desire to be 'nice' to others.

In their research, Brown and Levinson have found that in order to be polite, people avoid being frank and plain. In order to be polite, people say something but imply some other meaning. So they put forward the face-saving theory (FST).

In many language societies, when people put forward a formal request, he will use some formal words (e.g. use the indirect speech act to regret for his disturbance). When someone is not sure if it is appropriate to make a request, he may express himself in a more tactful way, to give the request by the conversational implicature. (E.g. at the table, someone says, 'it'll be nicer if it's a bit more salty.' The implicature meaning is to request the nearer to pass the salt for him.) In the above situations, the speaker do so to' save face' for himself and the audience.

To save face, we must employ the polite words. Only to save face, we can maintain the nice social relation, and communicate in a friendly atmosphere. And at last, realize the purpose of communication.

Brown and Levinson based their face-saving theory both on Grice's maxim theory and on Goffman's concept of 'face' as 'the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact '(Goffman, 1675). Face can be likened to a person's public self-esteem or self-image, which can be damaged, maintained or enhanced in interaction with others. Brown and Levinson extend Goffman's notion of face dividing face into positive face, which is similar to Goffman's face and negative face according to interactants' wants. A person's positive face is reflected in his desire for freedom of action and freedom from imposition. Deviations from Gricean maxims and motivated by employing strategies to counteract so-called 'face-threatening acts' (FTAs). By using these 'politeness strategies', speakers communicate both their primary message and also the message that they intend to be polite, which have the status of Gricean conversational implicature.

C. How to adhere to the Polite Principle

But how to be 'nice' to others, how to save face in our communication, that is, how to apply the Polite Principle in the conversation? Nearly every speech act constitutes in a specific way a threat to the Polite Principle, to the face of either of the two interactants. Certain linguistic strategies must be chosen from an elaborate repertoire of positive and negative politeness in order to provide redressive action. Certain linguistic strategies are employed

1. Positive politeness.

a. To show agreement.

E.g. That's a good idea. Why it never occurred to me?

The speaker shows appreciation to the listener's idea.

E.g. I quite agree with you that we cannot have it both ways.

The speaker shows agreement to the listener's idea.

b. To show the mutual cooperation.

E.g. You're right in saying so. I'll think it over and let you know my decision.

The speaker shows the understanding of the listener's idea and indicates that he will think about it.

E.g. I won't do it if you don't.

The speaker shows the flexibility. If the listener doesn't expect this event, the speaker will not do so.

c. To help the listener's desire to realized.

E.g. I sympathize with you and I'll do my best to help you.

The speaker shows the sympathy to the listener and makes the promise.

. Negative politeness

E.g. Never mind. I know that Robinson is a good friend of yours. I'll let David tell him about our decision.

The speaker doesn't force the listener, because he knows that the listener may be not willing to do this.

E.g. I'm sorry I didn't come to upset you. But that's a fact.

The speaker apologizes to show that he is unwilling to hurt the listener.

E.g. Under this circumstance, it seems best for one to let his colleagues know before any actions taken.

In fact the speaker is criticizing the listener, but he doesn't use the pronoun 'you', instead, he tries his best not to hurt the listener and save his face.

E.g. Let me help you with your suitcase. I'm going upstairs anyway.

The speaker wants to do the listener a favor. In order to make the listener feel at ease, he shows that he just help him by the way.

. To be covert. This strategy is mainly realized by the indirect utilization of FTA. i.e. realized by the violation of Grice's Cooperative Principle.

a. Violate the maxim of Relevance.

E.g. ----How do you think of my paintings?

----I don't have an eye for beauty, I'm afraid.

The speaker seems to give an irrelevant answer, but his implied meaning is that he doesn't like the paintings. This kind of speech act lessens the size of FTA.

b. Violate the maxim of Quantity.

E.g. A My husband doesn't stir a finger to help me with the housework.

B Women are women.

B's answer doesn't contain the necessary information and violates the maxim of Quantity. But his meaning is clear. That's to say the women are always garrulous to blame their husbands. This kind of speech act avoids the direct conflict.

b. Violate the maxim of Quality.

E.g. Teacher Where is Teheran?

Student In Egypt.

Teacher London is in U.S.A.

Obviously, what the teacher says is wrong. He violates the maxim of Quality. But the student immediately realizes that his answer is incorrect. The teacher doesn't directly point out the error, just to save face for the student.

d. Violate the maxim of Manner.

E.g. Miss X produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score of 'Home Sweet Home'. This sentence means, 'Miss X sang ¡®Home Sweet Home''. The speaker expresses this meaning in so many words. He violates the maxim of Manner; only want to save face for Miss X, and to express this meaning by conversational implicature.

D. The application of Polite Principle in education

Politeness is a feature of language in use. It pervades every aspect of our life. In teaching, as a teacher, in order to realize our purpose of education. Teachers need to establish a warm, caring, and supportive environment in which all the students are treated with care, respect, and compassion. They also must model acceptance and respect for the feelings of others. Teachers should avoid favoritism, sarcasm, or any other behavior that embarrasses or humiliates a student and save face for them.

1.The teacher should first find out why the students make mistakes and then give the education in the right way, not just criticize. It is the period of students' physical and mental growth in school. So the teacher should help the student maintain positive self-esteem and avoid sarcasm.

E.g. Class begins; a student rushes into the classroom out of breath.

Student Sorry, I'm late. Because¡­

Teacher (Be serious) Why you are so late? Don't you know you will make our class be criticized?

Student My bike's fall into broken in the half way. I ran to school.

Teacher You always have your reasons. Why don't you set out earlier? You must have slept over in the morning. Come to my office after class!

The student goes to his seat worriedly and can't focus his attention in the class. But if we change to another way, the same event will have a completely different result

Student Sorry, I'm late.

Teacher What's wrong? What has happened?

Student My bike's fall into broken in the half way. I ran to school.

Teacher I hope you will never be late again, ok? Go back to your seat as soon as possible. We'll begin our class at once.

The teacher gave both the sympathy and the requirement but no burden. This can let the student get into the state of study as soon as possible.

. Criticism is not the most important way in education. The teacher should mainly give praises. When the students are simply punished for disobedience, it does not promote the understanding that leads to higher levels of moral developments. Everyone makes mistakes. It is very common that the students make mistakes. Facing their mistakes, we should choose the right way to correct them.

E.g. There is a student who is very naughty. His study is the worst in the class. One day, the teacher found him copying some other's homework. But the teacher didn't criticize him as a typical 'bad boy'.

Teacher What are you doing?

Student (silence)

Teacher You write very carefully. In fact, yours is neater than that one.

Student Sorry, sir. I'm copying other's homework.

Teacher I'm glad that you can see your error. But if you do the homework by yourself, even if incorrectly, it is better than do nothing, yes? I hope you can let me know what you don't understand, so I can help you on time. OK?

So after class, this student said these words to the teacher, 'you haven't made me embarrassed. I know you don't hate me. I will try my best to make you satisfied.' In the following days, though the student is still naughty, he became to be warm-hearted to the classmates. So the teacher gave him a chance to be the monitor. The student himself even can't believe that the teacher would make such a 'bad boy' to be the monitor. So he became to try his best in study and working. This is how a 'bad boy' became an excellent student.

That's to say, teachers' praises and encourages are very important to the student. They first get the trust from the teacher, and then they get the self-confidence. Everyone has his merits and defeats. As a teacher, he should be good at discovering the students' merits and saving their faces. So we can help them to maintain a positive self-esteem.

. We'd better give the criticism in an indirect way. The following are the comments that the teacher gives to the 'bad' students.

E.g. In classes, you dare not put up your hands to answer the questions. When the teacher announces the result of the exam, you are so shame to want to go out. Why you always feel that you are inferior to others. I know you have difficulties in understanding the text and you don't know how to write a composition. But you can ask the teacher and your classmates. No pains, no gains. If you are more earnest in your study, you also can get high marks in the examination. The most important thing is that you can't look down upon yourself.

E.g. I know you want to make a progress, to be an excellent student, to make your parents happy. And you look forward to getting the teacher's praise and appreciation. But you are lazy and short of perseverance. You need more actions instead of words. Hurry up. Everyone hopes you make a progress.

So this kind of comment is tactful but concrete, explicit and sentimental. It can make a more close relationship between the teacher and the student.

Conclusion

In the above example and analysis, we can conclude that the polite principle is applicable in teaching. In the process of education, the Polite Principle should presuppose by the esteem to the student, based on different situation and then put to use. The above strategies can make our education more effective. So learning how to use the Polite Principle and utilizing it in education ought to become a basic skill of an educator. It has a perspective future in contemporary education.

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