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The Lost Generation

And the Code Hero

As

Depicted in

Order custom research paper on The Code Hero in Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises

Ernest Hemingway's

"The Sun Also Rises"

Karen L. Patterson

ENGL 441

Professor Wendy Perkins

Jake Barnes and Lady Brett Ashley are characterized as members of the

lost generation. They foolishly set out on pointless trips or get involved

in meaningless relationships to avoid feeling, dreaming or even hoping of good

things. They fit the description Gertrude Stein defines as members of the lost

generation.

Gertrude Stein defined the members of the lost generation as members of a generation that came of age during World War I. The World quickly adopted the phrase as the most accurate description of the generation that passed through the threshold of adulthood at this time working, fighting or dying in the war. The horrific conflict shattered this generation's faith in traditional values such as love, bravery, manhood and womanhood. Without these values to rely on, the members of this generation found their existence aimless, meaningless, and unfulfilling.

Their behavior and conduct during social situations, relationships and sexual

liaisons, further leads to classifying the two as part of the lost generation. Jake and

Lady Brett consider these situations as trivial matters, to be taken lightly and

without any thought about consequences or whom they hurt or damage. They have

friends who are superficial, lacking in commitment, and intent on going through life

without strong ties to anyone or anything. Both are damaged individuals, Jake

because of his impotence and experiences during the war. The war left many men

who fought, devastated by the trench warfare and the brutal deaths of their

comrades. During the war society's view on warfare and of those that fought

changed. Initially going to war was considered brave, patriotic and honorable. As

time passed the war brought out the frailty of humanity. Many people of Jake and

Brett's generation saw themselves differently after the war.

1

Attitudes and acceptable behavior before the war were cast aside. A

new era of immoral behavior, excessive drinking and a need to travel aimlessly

replaced moral behavior, the need for family, friends and commitment. Jake

Barnes and Lady Brett Ashley take membership in the lost generation to a whole

new threshold. Brett goes going through a painful separation, and loves and leaves

men as soon as relationships turn serious. Jake and Brett are in love with one

another, but cannot commit for reasons that many would fine trivial. Jake was

wounded during the war, an injury that left him unable to have sex. Jake and

Brett are in love with each other, but because Jake is impotent Brett cannot make a

commitment to him. For Brett sex and sexual conquests are the only way for her to

feel loved and in control of her life. She moves from one unfulfilling sexual conquest

to another, unheard of behavior for a woman of this generation. She takes all the

traditional values of women and casts them aside in an effort to combat her

loneliness and feelings of inadequacy. She drinks a great deal to avoid feeling the

pain she endures resulting from a series of failed relationships and sexual

conquests. Brett considers herself to be a very strong woman. She can handle

herself well in the company of all men at the same time. Brett is not a happy

woman, but the reasons for her unhappiness evades her. She realizes that many of

her relationships fail because of her reluctance to commit and in the end it is her

own doing. She never achieves happiness in her relationships, and in the end calls

for Jake to come and rescue her from herself. She needs to be loved and feel love

after a separation and impending divorce from her first husband. Both Jake and

Brett, as members of the lost generation, are in desperate need of happiness and

fulfillment. They travel aimlessly around the world in search of this fulfillment, but

as the novel ends we realized they never will quite achieve this goal.

Jake and Brett surround themselves with friends who are as self-destructive and

as unfulfilled as them. Their conversations consist of only trivial matters, often

through a haze of alcohol. It is during this excessive drinking that many of the

confrontations between Jake and Mike and their friends take place. The drinking

in the novel is a way to avoid any real chance at friendship. Often during these

alcoholic binges numerous fights occur. Drinking causes many confrontations and

shows the true nature of each relationship. Never discussed are the true feelings

each has for one another, and during these alcoholic episodes many of these

friendships are destroyed. They are not really friends at all, but convenient

partners in a dangerous dance of immorality and excess. Alcohol succeeds in not

only bringing out true feelings, but also destroys any chance of real and long lasting

friendships. They are only friends because they share feelings of inadequacy and

unfulfillment characterized by the lost generation. They never discuss how

they really feel about each other. They only hint at how they feel about their

lifestyles and immoral behavior. These friendships are successful only because in

each relationship there is an underlying proclivity to destroy that friendship.

Alcohol makes people behave badly and to lash out at each other. Hemmingway the

author of the "Sun Also Rises" uses alcohol to show how Jake, Brett and their

friends, fill their lives with drinking, dancing and immoral behavior that became

standard behavior for the souls of the lost generation. During conversations

between Jake and his friends there is no talk of the war and its long-lasting effects.

True friend could easily discuss the impact the war had on their lives and

relationships, but when people are only superficial it is difficult to bring into

conversations how the war affected your life and relationships.

Like Brett, Jake picks up people and then casts them aside. He meets Georgette,

the prostitute, has dinner with her and then abandons her because he is distracted

by Brett. Jakes uncaring attitude towards people he encounters is indicative of the

behavior of people of the lost generation. The people of the lost generation became a

group of individuals who felt the need to travel aimlessly, not create any lasting

relationships, and never succeed at anything in life. The affects of the lost

generation came about as a result of the end of the war, when hope died as more lives were lost.

In Hemingway's novel, "The Sun Also Rises," he always includs one or

more characters he refers to as the "code hero." The code hero in Hemingway's

novel is thought to always be the main or strongest character. The code

heroes in Hemingway's novel "The Sun Also Rises," are characters that live by a

code of conduct that allows them to maintain their human dignity, at all costs. They

are as follows

The hero accepts responsibility for his own life. He doesn't blame others for his circumstances, neither God nor fate nor other human beings. The hero does not intrude into other people's lives or behave badly toward them. He is a gentleman. The hero is a professional. He does his work well, developing the talents he has and letting nothing hinder him. Moreover, he pursues both his work and his

pastimes out of love for what he does. To do otherwise is "fake," or as

4

the Existentialists would say, "acting in bad faith." The hero seeks

out tests of his courage, for it is only by testing himself that he can

lessen his fear of death, keep meaninglessness at bay, and attain self-confidence. Those who are capable of meeting these tests, of coming through harrowing life-and-death experiences without breaking, are said to exhibit "grace under pressure." The hero is a man of action, not an intellectual. He is reticent about his inner life since, for Hemingway, talk dissipates the emotional power of experience.

As a man of action, the hero makes things happen in the world. One

of the worst offenses against the code is passivity, which leads to

romantic escapism and finally to the experience of meaninglessness or, as Hemingway called it, using the Spanish word for "nothing," nada.

The hero creates his own values, which derive form his actions and his response to them. The hero is not involved in political movements, does not champion ideologies, and is not patriotic. His allegiance is to a small group of like-minded individuals. There is a definite insider/outsider, "Us vs. Them" attitude within group, who sometimes speak in a way that prevents others from understanding them.

Jake Barnes fits the profile of the "code hero," a character found in many of Hemingway novels. Never does Jake blame anyone else for his impotence. He rarely speaks of it, to do so would be rude, another of the codes not to be broken by the hero. He takes responsibility for his actions. While many around him are behaving rudely, Jake is often the one to try and diffuse each situation before it gets out of hand. Jake can be viewed as the code hero of the story. Unlike Jake who fits the description of a code hero, Brett often behaves rudely towards the men with which she had relationships. She never seeks out relationships that would that would require her to demonstrate true courage. She hides behind her love for Jake and uses it to hurt as many men as she can. She is not a code hero by any measure of the definition.

5

Bibliography

Ernest Hemingway. "The Sun Also Rises," Scribner 16.

Module One Commentary, Definition of the code hero in Hemingway's novels taken from Module One Commentary. Accessed on

November 00. http//tychousa.umuc/ENGL 441/011.

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Allen Ginsberg, a beat poet, made his debut appearance in the 160's with his

poem "Howl" (see Appendix A). The poem made headlines and began a new era of

poetry that was influenced by 'sex, drugs, and rock and roll'. Ginsberg's writings were

a combination of Blake, Whitman, Pound, and Williams, all of which he met while he

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was attending Columbia University.(Schwartzman) With his new style of writing,

Ginsberg opened many new doors for poets and writers in America. He had no fear

of writing what exactly was on his mind or what he thought. Many times, his writings

were influenced by the affects of mind - altering drugs such as inhalants, marijuana,

and LSD.(Gates) Drugs were the main influence in Ginsberg's writings, which could

be attributed to his new family life, new - found - friends from Columbia University,

and the era in which he lived.

Allen Ginsberg was a poet who, at times, seemed to care more about others

than he did about himself. From the time that his life began, he had to help look after

others. His father, a published poet and high school teacher, died when Allen was the

ripe age of ten years old.(Fass) This lack of a male figure in his life could very

possibly be the reason that he was gay. Ginsberg's mother was a radical Communist

who also was a nudist. She went tragically insane in early adulthood. It was made

obvious to his readers that Ginsberg loved his mother when he wrote a poem for

her(Appendix B). In Allen's life, the absence of parental support added to his mixed

feelings about sexuality had a heavy influence on his writings.(Fass)

Ginsberg attended school at Columbia University intending to be a left - wing

lawyer, like his father had wanted him to be, but soon he fell in with a bad crowd who

was out of the literary, cultural, political, and sexual mainstream. In 156, Ginsberg

wrote the poem "Howl"(see Appendix A), which made him notorious. It was said to be

a prophecy of the hell - and - heaven that was to break loose in the 160's.(Gates)

After that poem had received publicity, Ginsberg said that he wanted to be known as

the most brilliant man in America.(Gates) That wish was granted when Allen began to

be known as the literary voice that was most known and respected by young

Americans. He was a mystic, an original beatnik, a political protester, and probably

the free spirit that everyone at some time was has wished that they could be(Tytell).

This hippie scene in the early 60's was where he and his friend Timothy Leary

worked together to publicize Leary's new discovery, the psychedelic drug LSD.(Fass)

Allen also experimented with Benzedrine, marijuana, and cruised gay bars with his

new friends.(Kramer,XV)

Ginsberg devised his stance and long - breathed cadences from the Bible,

Blake, Christopher Smart, and Whitman -- with special effects courtesy of LSD, speed,

and laughing gas(Gates). In 17 he took Buddhist vows. If they didn't interfere much

with his appetite for sex, drugs, and hanging with rock stars, they surely deepened his

sense of the transitory nature of these pleasures, and the void beyond.(Gates) It was

not hard to see the effects of these drugs on his life. Ginsberg died at the age of 70.

On his deathbed, he wrote twelve poems including "Death on All Fronts" (Appendix A)

His last and longest talk was with William Burroughs, 8 at the time, who had

introduced him to the "druggy gay - hipster lowlife" in the 40's.(Gates) Ironically,

Allen Ginsberg died shortly before the 0th anniversary of The Summer of Love in

San Francisco. And most probably, there would have been no hippies, no flower

children, no Sixties revolution had it not been for The Beats of the 50's and early 60's,

and for Ginsberg, Kerouac, Leary, Ferlinghetti, and the others of that preceding time

of alternatives.(Fass) To add to Ginsberg's accomplishments, he also coined the term

"Flower Power" in the 160's(Vortex). This related to the time period in that it was a

term that was used quite regularly. It was used to send the message of peace.

The techniques that Allen Ginsberg used could be summed up with two words

Beat Generation. This was a literary movement that began with such writers such as

Ginsberg, Kerouac, Ferlinghetti, and Snyder. This generation and its subculture were

known for its "restlessness, and alienated nature" (Anderson,118). The beat generation

joined forces with other writers that had similar beliefs and made a group called the

San Francisco Renaissance. Ginsberg became known as a kind of literary and

psychological guru (Anderson 118). He wrote in open forms while exploring Eastern

and Western mysticism from Buddha to William Blake. While he was greatly

concerned with the human psyche, he was also concerned with action against war,

the abuse of nature, and all curbs on freedom (Anderson 118). The poem "Homework"

clearly displayed his concerns as shown in the excerpt "If I were doing my laundry I'd

wash my dirty Iran/ I'd throw in my United States, and pour on the Ivory Soap, scrub

up Africa, put all the birds and elephants back in the jungle" (Anderson 118).

In Ginsberg's writings, he used free verse (Appendix A,B) to reproduce how

people speak naturally. He wanted nothing unnatural in his poetry. It's possible that

Ginsberg got this style from Whitman, his mentor, who was the first American poet to

use free verse (Anderson 1144). Ginsberg also used imagery in many of his poems.

Several of the poems that he wrote , too explicit to repeat, gave the reader a very

clear image of what he was explaining or where he wanted the reader to feel.

In addition to Ginsberg's poetry, there were many other works that were

related to the use of drugs during the time period of the 150'5 - 160's. One of the

works was Alice in Wonderland. Thought to be an every - day children's story,

viewers can see in the movie that Alice experiences many hallucinations that could

be caused by drugs. Many critics say that the story is nothing but a story of a girl on

LSD (Vortex).

Allen Ginsberg, a mentor to many young writers and free spirits, was a man

who followed his heart, which sometimes led him down the wrong path, but helped

him to become a poet that many people look up to. His ideals were fresh and down to

earth. This and the fact that Ginsberg was against war and pollution and into the '60's

scene' made him the perfect hippie.

Of all of the things that Ginsberg contributed to America, the realism that

everyone can make a difference no matter what life style they lead was the most

important thing. Though his writings were obviously influenced by drugs, he opened

eyes and hearts to a new vision. That vision was peace, love and happiness.

Appendix A

excerpt from Howl

I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by

madness, starving hysterical naked,

dragging themselves through the negro streets at dawn

looking for an angry fix,

angelheaded hipsters burning for the ancient heavenly

connection to the starry dynamo in the machin-

ery of night,

who poverty and tatters and hollow-eyed and high sat

up smoking in the supernatural darkness of

cold-water flats floating across the tops of cities

contemplating jazz,

who bared their brains to Heaven under the El and

saw Mohammedan angels staggering on tene-

ment roofs illuminated,

who passed through universities with radiant cool eyes

hallucinating Arkansas and Blake-light tragedy

among the scholars of war,

who were expelled from the academies for crazy &

publishing obscene odes on the windows of the

skull,

who cowered in unshaven rooms in underwear, burn-

ing their money in wastebaskets and listening

to the Terror through the wall,

who got busted in their pubic beards returning through

Laredo with a belt of marijuana for New York,

who ate fire in paint hotels or drank turpentine in

Paradise Alley, death, or purgatoried their

torsos night after night

with dreams, with drugs, with waking nightmares, al-

cohol and cock and endless balls,

incomparable blind; streets of shuddering cloud and

lightning in the mind leaping toward poles of

Canada & Paterson, illuminating all the mo-

tionless world of Time between,

Peyote solidities of halls, backyard green tree cemetery

dawns, wine drunkenness over the rooftops,

-San Francisco, 155 - 156

(Austin)

Appendix B

excerpt from Kaddish

It leaps about me, as I go out and walk the street, look back over my shoulder,

Seventh Avenue, the battlements of window office buildings shouldering each other

high, under a cloud, tall as the sky in an instant -- and the sky above -- an old blue

place.

or down the Avenue to the south, to -- as I walk toward the Lower East Side -- where

you walked 50 years ago, little girl -- from Russia, eating the first poisonous tomatoes

of America -- frightened on the dock --

then struggling in the crowds of Orchard Street toward what? -- toward Newark --

toward candy store, first home-made sodas of the century, hand-churned ice cream

in backroom on musty brownfloor boards --

Toward education marriage nervous breakdown, operation, teaching school, and

learning to be mad, in a dream -- what is this life?

(Austin)

Works Cited

Anderson, Brinn1an, and Legget, Arpin, Toth. Elements of Literature. 5th Course.

New York Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 18.

Austin, James. "Holy Soul Jelly Roll - Poems and Songs (14 - 1)". Alta Vista.

WWW.//8 http//www.rhino.com/features/liners/716lin.html

Fass, Don. "America Online - (Allen Ginsberg Tribute)". Yahoo. WWW. //8.

http//www.sftoday.com/enn/ginsberg.htm

Gates, David. "Holy the Bob Apocalypse!". Newsweek. 4/14/8.

Ginsberg, Allen. Collected Poems. New York Harper & Row Publishers, 184.

Kramer, Jane. Allen Ginsberg in America. New York Random House Inc., 16.

Schwartzman, Paul. "Beat Generation Poet Allen Ginsberg Death at 70." Ocala Star

Banner 4/6/7.

"Thru the Vortex Allen Ginsberg and his Poetry". /1/7. Yahoo WWW. //8.

http//www.geocities.com/soho/cafe/181/

Tytell, John. "Allen Ginsberg, American Poet, 16 - 17". Yahoo. WWW. //8.

http//www/levity.com/corduroy/ginsberg/home.htm

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The Simpsons is a very successful animated sitcom. Sitcom is an abbreviation of situation comedy. A sitcom is a comedy in which you have different storylines every episode. Other famous animated sitcoms are Family Guy, Futurama and South Park.

The Simpsons is the brainchild of Matt Groening (rhymes with complaining) and started of as 0 second sketches on the Tracy Ullman Show. They proved so successful that the Fox Network decided to produce a half hour long version and so on December 18 The Simpsons as we know and love was born.

Before The Simpsons was introduced many sitcoms were quite bland and a perfect reflection of family life. Matt Groening decided to make a programme that reacted against these middle class, formulaic sitcoms.

The purpose of The Simpsons is above all to entertain otherwise no one will watch it, however The Simpsons also exposes stereotypes and satirises aspects of mainstream cultures and institutions that are wrong as a way of ridiculing them.

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The main appeal of The Simpsons lies with its target audience. My younger sister enjoys watching The Simpsons as she enjoys seeing Bart and Lisa getting into trouble and also because it has a lot of funny moments that even children will enjoy, for example when Barney rolls into everyone during the soccer riot. Me and my parents enjoy it as it has adult jokes and adult themes such as when Patty and Selma are seducing the repairman. Many other animated sitcoms like South Park have failed to equal The Simpsons wide age range and that is a reason why they don't match The Simpsons' accomplishments.

In 'The Cartridge Family', Homer buys a gun to protect his family after a 'citywide orgy of destruction' but it causes friction with Marge who feels guns will endanger the family and therefore issues Homer an ultimatum. Your family or your gun.

In The Simpsons, nearly all the characters subvert or conform to stereotypes. This is done to show stereotypes are just lazy generalizations that are used as a way of keeping people down.

In 'The Cartridge Family' violent Scottish football fans wearing tartans and with red hair worsen a soccer riot. They say 'Call this a soccer riot' and bring out weapons. These fans are conforming to the stereotype of Scottish people and British hooligans. This stereotype has been exaggerated so that it can be brought to our attention and so we realize how silly the stereotype is.

On the other hand the father stereotype is being subverted in 'The Cartridge Family'. When the 'Ex-Con' salesman comes over Homer doesn't listen to a word he says. Instead he shouts 'Lets get that' in a very excited manner with his eyes wide open. This is subverting the stereotype because the father should be calm and have good judgement. The father should know what is best for the family. Homer doesn't. Matt Groening could be trying to tell us that all fathers are not clever or have good judgement. He could be poking fun at the fact that the father is supposed to be wise and intellectual even though this is not always the case.

The Simpsons also satirises some aspects of American mainstream culture. The main aspect critisiced in this episode is the gun culture.

In this episode, The Simpsons is trying to persuade us that guns are dangerous because in America many people own guns. To do this The Simpsons exaggerates that guns put your family at a lot of risk instead of protecting them. For example when Bart almost shoots Millhouse. The Simpsons points out that a gun owner is hypocritical. When Homer says 'Piece of mind is what you shall have' to Marge there is a juxtaposition of scenes to highlight this hypocrisy. After reassuring Marge, straight away we see Homer ask the shopkeeper for his deadliest gun. By doing this Matt Groening hopes people will think twice about keeping guns in the house. He also shows how silly it is to keep guns to protect your family by showing the gun going off and shooting Marge's photo. Even though this is unlikely to happen in real life it shows accidents do happen and that guns endanger instead of protecting.

In 'The Cartridge Family' law and politics are critisiced a lot. Matt Groening feels there are several aspects of American law and politics that have to be changed.

Mayor Quimby is supposed to epitomize the politician and because of this he leads a very seedy and corrupt private life. Mayor Quimby comes into Marge's room with a blonde woman and asks if Marge needs the room for the whole night. This is showing that politicians often abuse their power and are very dishonest because there are some real life Mayor Quimbys. For example Bill Clinton.

The Simpsons also satirises the legal world by focusing on the Five Day Waiting law. Homer must wait five days before he can be issued a gun. This is done to ensure that proper checks can be undertaken on whether someone is eligible to carry guns. However The Simpsons claims that five days is not enough to determine if someone is fit to carry guns, as this could be a life or death decision. This is highlighted by the fact that Homer says from studentcentral.co.uk 'Five days! I'm mad now'. This is saying that often people buy guns on an impulse and that they do not really think about what they are getting themselves into. Also the law is portrayed as not being very effective. Homer is an 'alcoholic', has a 'mental problem' and has beaten up important people, however this only limits Homer to guns. This is ridiculing the law as it is not working. If it were working America would not have such a high crime rate.

Unlike English mainstream culture, America does not view soccer that highly. Americans consider it boring as it is 'low scoring' and has 'draws'. Because of this The Simpsons makes fun of our soccer culture. The Simpsons satirise the fact that soccer supporters get overly emotional about the 'Beautiful Game'. Before the match, Homer turns to Marge looking very worried and claims that he will 'kill himself if Portugal win'. Matt Groening is trying to say some supporters treat soccer as a life or death situation and get too intense about their team. The Simpsons also tries to imply football is all hype. The expectation of the crowd is tremendous during the build up to the match but it all fizzles out once the boring match kicks off. The Simpsons is saying that football does not live up to the hype and euphoria created by the media.

The Simpsons parodies certain median genres or styles to show how cheesy or formulaic they are. In 'The Cartridge Family' Homer says to Marge 'There is so much I want to tell you'. This is imitating corny romance films in which a character says 'There is so much I want to tell you'. Changing the tell to yell not only makes it funny but also shows how predictable and unoriginal these films have become. The Simpsons is trying to show us that we should not accept these identical and unimaginative films because The Simpsons is successful as it is not unimaginative or formulaic.

In addition The Simpsons satirises the power of the media and the TV. During 'The Cartridge Family' everyone is watching the television silently. The Simpsons is pressing home the depressing truth that the whole family only gets together to watch TV. They do not come together for each other. Also when the whole family is watching the TV all we see is the television screen. This is suggesting that (kids especially) become very influenced by what they see. All they can see is what TV says to do and nothing else. This is also the case when Bart and Lisa run to Homer and ask to be taken to the soccer game, however they know nothing about soccer and they never would have wanted to go to the match if they had not seen the advert.

The final thing The Simpsons makes fun of is the American consumer culture. This is done as Matt Groening is unhappy that society as a whole think they need lots of things or possessions to be happy even though they don't. When the salesman comes to Homer's house, Homer agrees to buy 'Lucite' and a 'pretty alarm' even though it is obvious that those things are not needed. Groening is saying that often we don't think we need something until someone suggests it. It could be the TV or other people who suggest it but once we hear about it we feel as if it's essential to have. The Simpsons is doing this to say things aren't important. The important things are your friends and family.

In conclusion the main purpose of 'The Cartridge Family' is to persuade us not to keep guns in our possession as they are very dangerous and cause a lot of problems. The title of the episode gives this away. There is a pun on words because 'The Cartridge Family' sounds like 'The Partridge Family', which is a sitcom about a perfect family. However a cartridge reminds us of a gun.

On the whole I think this episode was quite successful as it has strong images such as the gun falling into Bart's hands and then Bart nearly shooting his best friend when he has the gun. These ideas stick in our minds so we think twice about buying guns. However the episodes strongest feature is the comedy it can generate over as sensitive a subject like keeping guns in the house

An interesting point is that The Simpsons contradicts itself. Firstly it has become what it is against. 'The Cartridge Family' makes fun of celebrities being used to sell products and the public buying these things by using the example of Pele endorsing Crestfield Wax Paper, however I have seen The Simpsons lend it's name to all sorts of products like cereal and ready meals. So in a way either inadvertently or deliberately it has become a contradiction. However I find it hard to believe that someone as clever as Matt Groening would be naïve enough to accidently let The Simpsons become the contradiction it now is.

Another point is that The Simpsons critisices the very medium it uses which is TV. Matt Groening satirises TV for making people want things they don't need however I have seen a lot of kids go and buy Simpsons toys and games after watching The Simpsons. Because of this I find it hypocritical for The Simpsons to critisice other things for doing the same thing it (indirectly) does.

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1.0 Introduction

In today's world, views of social responsibility that are held by organisations, the government and the general public have changed dramatically over the last 100 years(Barney,11). Today's organisations need to be aware that people want to see more socially responsible companies. A large proportion of social responsibility is taking responsibility towards the natural environment. It wasn't long ago where companies were able to get away with simply dumping their sewerage and waste products from their production and just ignoring it or covering it up. It is now, however that many laws regulate the disposal of waste and companies are finding themselves having to become more socially responsible in their release and disposal of pollutants. Berry and Rondinelli (18) suggest that the trend toward proactive environmental management is being accelerated by public pressures on governments almost everywhere to assure a cleaner environment (Berry, Rondinelli,18).This means that societies need for a cleaner environment is becoming more prominent as we move on to the future and resources are becoming more scarce. The government regulations on environmental cleanliness and pollution have become more stringent and are coming down harder. Customers have also become more demanding in their views towards environmental management. Historically, efforts to reduce pollution were led by regulators and viewed as an additional, and often significant cost. Pollution gained a reputation from both regulators and companies as a problem that required either treatment or in an extreme case, disposal

.0 Defining "The Greening of Management"

Robbins, Bergman, Stagg and Coulter (00) stated that the greening of management is the recognition of the close link between and organisations decisions and activities and its impact on the natural environment (Robbins, Bergman, Stagg and Coulter 00). This shows how close companies have to be to their surrounding environment to be able to become actively involved to make a difference. Today, managers are being confronted by questions about the natural environment and how the environment impacts the organisation. Medhurst (1) says that the recognition of the link between the organisations decisions and activities and is impact on the natural environment is referred to as the greening of management. He goes on to say that if a company is genuinely socially responsible and "green" in their approach to their surroundings then it can work to an advantage for the company as the community will support that they are helping them out (Medhurst,1). Customers tend to be more loyal if they can se that the organisation or company that they support, supports them in return and is doing positive things for their community. This is such a bonus for a company that puts a little time and effort into respecting the environment. Businesses today need to be able to recognise the close link between an organisations decisions and its impact on the natural environment. According to Barney (11), there are 5 global issues that are affecting the environment, these are, natural resources, global warming, pollution, industrial accidents and toxic waste (Barney, 11)

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.0 How "The Greening of Management" has become an important issue in management

More than just a savvy marketing campaign, greening a companys facilities

can have recognizable benefits - to employees, the bottom line, and mostly,

the environment.(Masden,00) When a company receives a fine for an environmental violation, there is a range of possible outcomes that the organisation will undertake. At one extreme the company might make the minimum changes necessary to avoid further penalties and fines, which could include attempts to cover up or hide the offending behavior. At the other extreme, the fines and penalties could serve as a well needed wake-up call. In this case the firms managers not only correct the specific problem that brought the fine but also develop an infrastructure that would lessen the companys negative environmental impact and therefore its exposure to subsequent fines. The greening of management and the need to be socially responsible has become an important issue that organisations can no longer push aside as there are severe consequences. Petts, Herd and O'heocha discovered that most organisations have taken some proactive steps on the corporate greening ladder and have thus revealed certain characteristics of responsive management which support organizational learning discussions (1) an individual who leads and champions the cause; () a positive attitude to the business benefits of environmental performance, coupled with a belief that is important for companies to respond to the environment; and () an open approach to, and empowerment of, employees, particularly through training and also provision of opportunities for influence and comment (Petts. Herd,O'heocha,18).

4.0 How "The Greening of Management" has been used to improve business performance

There are many examples of organisations that have done well through their green attitude to the environment all you need to do is look at a prime example such as the Body shop. The Body shop say that they believe that a business has the responsibility to protect the environment in which it operates, locally and globally (Body shop,00). This is the statement made by one of, if not the most successful "green" company in the world, They support animal testing, community trade, self esteem, human rights and the protection of the planet. The Body shops products are made up of environmentally friendly products and this is why they are so succesfull, customers like the idea of a green organisation. The Body shop does not use mass marketing campaigns to promote it product yet are still very successful with their sales. Customers are drawn to the Body shop because of their ethics. Below is a diagram that shows the various stages of a businesses attitude towards green management. The more green an organisation is, the higher the environmental sensitivity and more appealing the company will be to the community

Hass (16) shows steps to becoming green are simple and the results for a company are very rewarding in the way of image and sales. Five steps to going green are provided 1. Reduce, reuse, recycle. . Implement a green procurement policy. . Investigate ways to increase energy efficiency. 4. Conserve water. 5. Implement sustainable design principles (Hass,16). These are all really easy steps for such a large outcome. Henriques and Sadorsky (16) show that case studies have indicated that companies experience a number of benefits from eco-efficiency including increased profitability and reduced liability through compliance with environmental regulations (Henriques, Sadorsky,16). Other companies have reported a saving in pollution control equipment and a competitive advantage through the development of eco-friendly products. Although environmental regulations continue to drive many companies to reduce pollution, there are a number of other factors that may influence a company. Desire to reduce costs, Process efficiencies, reduced waste and reduced raw materials ensures profits are enhanced and small businesses gain a competitive advantage. Another reason would obviously be customers, For many small businesses, customers can be a significant driver to improve environmental performance.. Recent evidence suggests that companies who appropriately manage environmental risk will be more profitable in the long term. A growing body of investors and analysts now review social and environmental performances of companies prior to making investment decisions.

5.0 Conclusion

Petts, Herd and O'heocha have found that individuals overwhelmingly support environmentally responsible actions by companies (Petts, Heard, O'heocha,18).Efforts to become green do make a difference. By making a decision to first reduce consumption of goods, then to reuse as much as possible, and finally to recycle what cannot be reused, you contribute to significant reductions in energy consumption, greenhouse gases, water pollution, acid rain, the movement of hazardous goods, and the depletion of natural resources. Customers appreciate organisations that show that they are socially responsible. The Body shop is so successful in sales because they are a name the customers can trust to do the right thing, and when customers buy Body shop products it also makes them feel good to know that they have supported a green business. Therefore if a business can show that they can manage their environmental impacts effectively and efficiently, the businesses image is going to soar as high as the profits.

References

Berry,M.Rodinelli, D (18) Proactive corporate environment management A new industrial revolution. The Academy of Management Executive; ada;May 18 Volume 1 Issue Pg 8-50

Barney, J. (11). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage.

Journal of Management, 17, 771-7.

Davidson, P. Griffin,R (1) Management Australia in a Global Context pg 17- 1

Hass, J. (16) Environmental (green) management typologies an evaluation,

operationalization and empirical development, Business Strategy the

Environment, pg. -107.

Henriques, I., Sadorsky, P. (16). The determinants of an environmentally

responsive firm An empirical approach. Journal of Environmental Economics

and Management

Medhurst, J. (1). Environmental costs and industry competitiveness.

Environmental Policies and Industrial Competitiveness, pg. 7-47.

Madson., J (00) Going Green Volume6 Issue Pg 40-4

Petts, J,Herd, A, O'heocha, M.(18). Environmental responsibilities,Individuals and organisational learning, Journal or Environmental planning and management Nov 18, Volume 41, Issue 6

Robbins,S.Bergnam,R.Stagg,I.Coulter,M (00) Foundations of management. Prentice Hall Publishing Pg 145-148

Smith, D. (Ed) (1) Business and the Environment Implications of the

New Environmentalism (London, Paul Chapman).

Stead, W. E., & Stead, J. G. (16). Management for a small planet Strategic

decision making and the environment. Thousand Oaks, CA Sage.

Website. http//www.ea.gov.au/industry/eecp/ Environment Australia

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Effects of the Year 000 Problem

Almost everything in the world is recorded or run by computer.

Electricity, communications, medicine, weapons, money, food, factories and

just about anything else you can think of will be effected by the year 000

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problem. The year 000 problem could be the biggest technological problem

the world may ever face. Some people are preparing for world wide crisis.

Others believe some lucky person will invent a small disc that will

eliminate the problem in less time that it takes a person to pop the disk

in their computer. Either way the world is spending billions of dollars

trying to prepare and solve the problem, and so far nobodys been able to

come across an exact solution.

What is the Year 000 Problem?

The Year 000 problem is more commonly referred to as the YK

problem or the Millennium bug. The YK problem has to deal with how

computers keep track of the date. In almost every system before 15 the

date that the computer kept was abbreviated. An example would be that 151

would be abbreviated as 51. So, as a result, computers will read 00 and

think its 100 and not 000. This seemingly small problem will result in a

loss of most records and information kept in computers causing a major

headache for government agencies and major businesses, not to mention all

home owners and other people. Gina Smith writes in a August 18 issue of

Popular Science about the fixing of the problem

You are probably wondering why the problem is so hart to fix. It isnt

Its just that theres so much to be fixed. Updating software to handle the

new century is sometimes a matter of culling through millions of lines of

code, and the finding and fixing every two-digit date reference. One

mistake and the entire operation may be unsuccessful (Smith 6).

What can the YK prblem effect?

On the home front people could be waking up to chaos. In June 18,

PC Computing featured an article where John C. Dvorak shares his thoughts

of what might happen on 1 January 18. He writes

The situation will not be easily corrected and many believe it will

collapse the economy. This will be worsened by municipal systems that will

cut off peoples gas, light, and water since they havent paid their bill

for 100 years. . .all the new car computer that monitor engines with real-

time computer system have date stamping that will fail at midnight, making

it impossible to start the car (Dvorak 4).

Anyone who lives in a cold climate wont appreciate not having any heat

during one of the coldest months of the year. Dvorak continues to go in

depth in how the first problems will create a domino effect and eventually

lead to the fall of the economy

As computer scheduling fails, the food distribution system will fall apart.

The homeless will flock to the farmlands looking for food only to be

butchered as trespassers, their bodies left to rot. Carrion will abound.

Disease will spread from the rotting corpses and be transferred to by packs

of wild dogs. . . . (Dvorak 4)

In January 17, PC Computing estimates that 10% of all businesses wont

survive the transition(Lyon 50). Because of the shutdown of businesses,

many people can expect to be out of a job come the first of January. If

people wake up and find themselves out of a job they may be prepared with a

savings to fall back on. Having an account in a bank could mean more

trouble. Because bank computers are linked through enormous networks, a

breakdown anywhere in the system could adversely affect hundreds of

institutions around the world(Consumer Reports 56). Its possible banks

could loose all records of customers accounts and going to the bank to get

money would be a joke.

The Department of Defense could put the security of its citizens

in jeopardy. Nuclear weapons could accidentally be set off killing millions

of people. Radar and other computer systems might fail causing out defense

system to be unaware of possible attack. In a 1 September 17 issue of

Science News Janet Raloff states

Recently, the Defense Department got a taste of what Headaches lie in

store, when a faulty year 000-related date calculation inappropriately

removed form inventory 0,000 items in DLAs(Defense Logistics Agency)

materiel management system. Correcting the problem took 400 hours to

fix(17).

Raloff went on to say that the DOD is at working on the problem and will

meet their deadline.

Below is a chart of worst case scenarios and what is likely to

happen come the turn of the century. Dante Chinni supplied the chart in a

June 17 issue of Newsweek.

Worst Scenario Likely to Happen

Airlines

At midnight, the nations air-traffic-control systems go dead.

Some planes lose the ability to navigate properly. Chaos in the skies.

Travelers get very familiar with the airport lounge. Airlines fleets stay

aloft, but delays abound. The bottom line Stay home and watch bowl games.

Manufacturing

Security systems leave workers locked outside the front gate.

Assembly lines stop moving. Those 1 models remain on showroom floors.

The big companies get their act together, but suppliers have problems that

slow shipments; 1 models stay on showroom floors.

Banking

The entire financial infrastructure, including the stock market,

goes haywire,. Balances, records and transactions are lost. Some patrons

may be temporarily shut out of their accounts. Electronic wire transfers

may be disrupted. It may be best to keep a few dollars under the

mattress.

Medical

As the ball drops in Times Square, hospital machinery, like IV

units and cardiac monitors, suddenly shuts down. The last thing

patients see is Dick Clark. Hospital paperwork, billing and

patient records get fouled up. Suppliers loose records; tongue depressors

become scarce.

Nuclear Power

Aooouga! Aooouga! Control chip opens the wrong release valve.

Radiation problems make Three Mile Island look like a picnic. Safety systems

suffer small problems. Minor malfunctions cause short-term shutdowns.

Stock up on candles and flashlight batteries.

Military

Defense systems weakened by software snafus. Global positioning

satellites get lost, leaving the nation vulnerable. Some old

battlefield equipment is junked rather than fixed. High-tech systems

get even more temperamental. Faltering programs order $00 hammers.

Government

Feds lose track of government-benefits recipients. The IRS figures

your tax bill is equal to the national debt. Deadly viruses kept under

computer lock are released. Though it got a late start on the

bug, most major systems are intact. Some benefits checks are late. Techno-

veep Gore Takes a hit.(Newsweek 57)

Solutions and Cost

No body has come up with a definite solution thats fast and cost

effective that will stop the YK problem from causing damage. Instead, big

corporations, government agencies, etc…have to spend millions on groups of

computer programmers. Programmers work around the clock trying to find the

two digits, which make up the date, among the millions of lines of code and

reprogram them. Jeff Titcomb describes why the process is so painstaking

It seems that in most mainframe programs, the date appears more often than

MASH reruns on television-about once every 50 lines of code. Typically,

its hard to find those particular lines, because the original programs,

often written in the ancient COBOL computer language, are quirky and

undocumented. After all that analysis, you have to figure out how to

rewrite the lines to correctly process the date. Only then comes the most

time-consuming step testing the rewritten program(Newsweek 54).

Companys with enough money are hiring as many programmers they can hoping

to get the problem solved before its too late. Peter de Jager, a computer

brain trying to solve the YK problem, warns business owners If youre not

changing code by November of this year(17), you will not get this thing

done on time-its that simple. We still dont get it(Newsweek 57). Neil

Gross states

U.S. companies will spend a total of $14 billion on outside consultants

and programmers. . . Throw in new hardware and software purchases , and the

worldwide bill could balloon to $600 billion(Gross 41).

Many people are taking special precautions at home in preparation

for the turn of the century dealing with money, water, heat etc. Its

recommended that you should keep any reciept or make a hard copy of any

money related transaction. A easy way to do this would be to keep track of

these records on your computer. (If your PC is less than two years old it

will have no problem dealing with the YK problem.) Some people who live in

colder climates recommend stocking up on fire wood to provide heat if the

furnaces dont work. Others are putting away a supply of water in case the

pumps fail to work. Some people are even hiding money at home, just in case

they need something to fall back on.

As one can see, the thought of YK problem arouses some terrifying

scenarios. People should keep up with the progress being made concerning

the YK problem so they have and idea what to expect. The effects I

mentioned are just a fraction of all the different possibilities. People

are working day and night trying to solve the problem while the year 000

is just around the corner. These same people are warning us to prepare and

expect the worst. In the end, the YK problem may cause society to collapse.

On the other hand, the YK might be something we laugh about on the evening

news and January 1, 000. Nobody knows!

Dvorak, John C. Apocalypse When? PC Computing June 18 4.

Gross, Neil. Year 000 The Meters Running. Business Week December

17 41.

Hayashi, Alden M. Millennium Bug Zapper. Scientific American June 18

6.

Hogan, Mike. Countdown to Crisis. PC Computing January 18 50-51.

Kagan, Julia. The Year 000 problem. Consumer Reports August 18 56-57.

Raloff, Janet. DODs year 000 vulnerabilities. Science news 1

September 17 17.

Smith, Gina. The Millennial Mess. Popular Science February 17 6.

Smith, Robert. The Day the World Crashes. Newsweek June 17 54, 57,

5.

Wilkinson, Alec. Millennial Malaise The New Yorker 1 January 17 7.

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If you order your research paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on comparison. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality comparison paper right on time.

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Thomas Raddall's "The Wedding Gift" and Budge Wilson's "The Leaving" explore the serious problems of two main characters surrounded by people who ruined and tried to keep them away from their rights, and how they eventually made effective changes in their lives by understanding their circumstances. The characters are similar in the way they changed their unsatisfied situations; however, the extent, stability and effects of those changes are different. They bravely made effective changes in their own unsatisfied lives, and the lives of other people around them, but the one with more understanding of her rights made more effective changes.

In both stories, the main characters did not like their previous situations, and eventually they bravely changed it. In Raddall's story, Kezia, who was taken to Barclays' house when she was fourteen, was forced to marry Mr. Hathaway, who is Mr. Barclay's agent at Bristol Creek. She did not want to marry him, but that was Mr. and Mrs. Barclay's decision. Kezia left Port Marriott for Bristol Creek with Mr. Mears, who was the preacher, to marry Mr. Hathaway. In their journey, Kezia suggested to Mr. Mears that they should bundle together in a hut in order to keep themselves warm throughout the cold night "… she answered vigorously, '… We've got to roll up in these.' 'Together?' he cried in horror. 'Of course! …' … clutched him in her arms, and rolled with him …"(8).Kezia was trying to find an excuse to manipulate Mr. Mears to marry her; therefore, she would change her future. In the morning, when they wanted to continue their journey, she told Mr. Mears that she could not lie to Mr. Barclay and Mr. Hathaway if they asked her where she spent the night. Mr. Barclay was against bundling " Mr. Barclay and the other Methody people are terrible set against it ... bundling was an invention of the devil" (4). Kezia suggested bundling to Mr. Mears, even though she knew Mr. Barclay was against it. She had planned to change her future with a good excuse for Mr. Barclay. Therefore, she manipulated Mr. Mears in getting married. She bravely changed her future to a happy one because obviously a person who did not have a choice in choosing her husband would have a lot of problems in convincing the Barclay's and Mr. Hathaway that she wanted to marry another person. Kezia brought up a good point, bundling, to convince them. Therefore, she made a happy future for herself by not marring Mr. Hathaway; instead, she would marry Mr. Mears.

In Wilson's story, we also see the same effective changes in another person's life. In "The Leaving," Elizabeth was suffering from a situation in which she did not have rights in her family. She could not stand up to her husband, she was not respected and appreciated by other members of the family, and she could not ask her sons to help her in her work. After she got a chance to read the book The Feminine Mystique, she decided to leave home for Halifax at midnight. Elizabeth came back home after three days. Her husband was angry about her leaving, but this time he did not yell at her. He told her, "How come my supper's not ready, woman? … Shut up them damn kids, woman! … This food ain't fit t' eat, woman!"(70). Her husband did not yell at her because he discovered that she had found out her rights; however, in the family the man had power, and her husband did not want to loose it. Therefore, he showed anger and told her to do her job. This time, although she prepared dinner and she cleaned up the house, she was not afraid of talking to her husband. She told him that her name is not 'woman' "My name is Elizabeth"(71). Elizabeth who could not stand up to her husband and talk to him, started to express herself and change her lifestyle. Elizabeth who previously could not ask her sons to help her, started to ask them to do work. She asked her youngest son to bring some water for her daughter. After a while, she also fixed up the attic as a private workroom for herself. She made all these changes bravely. First, she left for Halifax by taking money the family made by selling eggs. In a family that had no rights for Elizabeth, taking money that belonged to whole family required a lot of courage. The family never had enough money to travel to Halifax "We never had enough money to have more than one ride on the Exhibition ferris wheel … ; but here we were buying train tickets …"(66). Even though they were not a rich family, she went to Halifax. She wanted to show that she understood her rights, and tell her husband that she could manage herself. She would leave the family if she could not get her rights. She bravely changed her unwanted situation to a brighter one. She could stand up to her husband, express her ideas, be appreciated for her work and was treated more like a human rather than a thing.

Both Kezia and Elizabeth also had effects on the lives of other people around them. In Raddall's story, Kezia changed the future of Mr. Mears and Mr. Hathaway. Although, she did not want to marry Mr. Hathaway, it was for Mr. and Mrs. Barclay to decide. Mr. Barclay wanted to keep Mr. Hathaway satisfied to continue making profit for him because "Hathaway was a most capable fellow, Mr. Barclay often acknowledged" (). Kezia manipulated Mr. Mears to marry her in their trip to Bristol Creek. She found an excuse, bundling, for Mr. Barclay that he could not refuse. Therefore, Mr. Hathaway's fate was changed because she did not marry him. She decided to marry Mr. Mears, and they would be happy with each other. Mr. Barclay would not be happy because he might not able to keep Mr. Hathaway satisfied.

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In Wilson's story, besides the situation of the main character, the behaviour and thoughts of other people were changed as well. Elizabeth changed her unwanted lifestyle by reading the book The Feminine Mystique and by her leaving to Halifax. In her new situation, Elizabeth and her husband became closer to each other, "One day, for no apparent reason, he started to call her Elizabeth"(7). She made a private room for herself and the others respected her privacy, "No one was allowed to go there except her"(7). Her husband respected and appreciated her more, "… he often speaks to my mother as though she were more of a person and less of a thing. Sometimes he says thank-you." (7). They were helping each other in their work, "The boys lugged up her treadle sewing machine …"(7). Therefore, she eventually succeeded in making changes in the life of other members of the family. She changed the behaviour and thoughts of all members of the family. They now respected each other's thoughts, they appreciated each other, and they helped each other in their work.

In both stories, the characters changed their life after they understood their rights; however, Elizabeth understood her rights more than Kezia. In Raddall's story, "The Wedding Gift," Mr. Hathaway first thought about Miss Julia, the older daughter of Barclays, and then Miss Clara, the younger daughter of Barclays. He did not ask Mr. Barclay's daughters to marry him because as Mrs. Barclay pointed out, "The older daughter … was even then receiving polite attentions from Mr. Gamage … . And Miss Clara was going to Halifax … to display her charms to the naval and military young gentlemen …"(,). Therefore, they were not forced to marry somebody who they did not want to, and they had their right in choosing their husband. After Mr. Hathaway could not ask Mr. Barclay's daughters to marry him, he decided to marry Kezia, who did not have choice in choosing her husband. This provoked her to think why she could not have rights in choosing her husband like other girls. As a result, she decided to manipulate Mr. Mears to marry her, and she thought of an acceptable excuse for Mr. Barclay. Kezia only understood that she herself should be allowed to choose her husband. She did not try to understand her rights in other aspects of her life, especially her future life. When she decided to marry Mr. Mears, she did not bother thinking of her rights for the future and for making her own decisions on the things that would be related to her. She found out her rights for solving her unwanted situation, but she did not think of her rights in other aspects of her life. Therefore, she did not make stable changes in her life.

In Wilson's story, "The Leaving," Elizabeth understood her rights by reading the book The Feminine Mystique and by leaving to Halifax. In Halifax, she saw people's happiness, freedom, and specially women's rights, "Lovers strolled arm in arm, and children shrieked with laughter as they chased the pigeons. I asked Ma why everyone seemed so happy. … she said, 'Weather does things t' people' … 'and maybe some of them's free,' … we watched women racing to work in the morning … shopping women pulled twenty-dollar bills out of their purses as though they were nickels"(68). In Halifax, which was a more liberated city, she was trying to discover her rights and a better lifestyle for her family through other people. After she had read that book and came back from her journey, she started making changes in her life because she found out her rights. She discovered her rights as a wife, which was the ability to speak with the husband and express her ideas while being appreciated. She found out her right as a mother, who should be able to ask for help from her children. She found out her right as a person who works and needs her own private workroom. She found out her rights to be able to change her unwanted situation, and because she found out her rights extensively, she could make effective and stable changes in all aspects of her life and even the life of other members of the family.

The characters similarly had unsatisfied situations that they eventually changed, but their changes had a variety of effect on themselves, others and in understanding of their rights. Both women, who were not satisfied with their situation, bravely changed it by understanding their rights. They also changed other people's lives. Elizabeth, who understood her rights more extensively, made more stable and effective changes in all aspects of her life. For centuries people have been making a lot of changes in their lives, and their relationship to society by increasingly understanding their rights. In every generation, people affect each other's lives. They change each other's thoughts and behaviour. If one is not satisfied with another's behaviour, he should blame himself because he made them behave like that. As Elizabeth said, which is true for all relationships in society, "All along I bin blamin' men for bein' men. But now I see that oftentimes it's the women that makes them that way"(7).

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State & Local Government Accounting

Sources of GAAP for Government Entities

1. GASB Statements & Interpretations

. GASB Technical Bulletins

Cheap Custom Essays on State & Local Government Accounting

. Consensus Positions of GASB EITF (if it existed)

4. Implementation Guides of GASB Staff & Widely Recognized Industry Practices

5. Other Accounting Literature

Objectives of Financial Reporting for State and Local Governments are based on notion of Accountability (GASB Concept Statement No. 1 (187)

1. Compare actual results to budget

. Assess financial condition and operating results

. Assist in determining compliance with relevant laws and regulations

4. Assist in evaluating efficiency and effectiveness

The Reporting Entity

The Primary Government Typically a state or local government entity.

A Component Unit (e.g., community college, housing authority, arts organization) is usually reported in discrete presentation (separate column), but may be blended.

Contents of Comprehensive Annual Financial Report

• Introductory Section Table of Contents, Transmittal Letter, Officers, Organization Chart

• Financial Section

• Management's Discussion and Analysis

• Auditors' Report

• Basic Financial Statements

• Required Supplementary Information

• Statistical Section

Basic Financial Statements include

1. Government-wide Statements, under Accrual Accounting (GASB Statement No. 4) and Economic resources measurement focus

• Statement of Net Assets (Balance Sheet)

• Statement of Activities

. Fund Statements content and accounting methods vary by fund

. Notes to the Financial Statements

Fund Accounting The use of multiple accounting entities to account for resources segregated according to purpose.

Fund = Fiscal entity with self balancing set of records that record financial resources, related liabilities, residual balances, and changes therein.

Depending on the type of fund, financial statements will be prepared either using the [modified accrual basis and current financial resources measurement focus] or using the [accrual basis and economic resources measurement focus].

Current Financial Resources Focus

Current Assets Current Liabilities = Fund Balance

Economic Resources Focus

Current + Noncurrent Current Long-term = Net Assets

Assets Assets Liabilities Liabilities

Modified Accrual Accounting description/examples

• Revenue Recognition generally, when measurable and available

Imposed Non-Exchange (Tax) Revenue Recognized when taxes are levied & resources available.

Property taxes are an example.

o Derived tax revenues Recognized when susceptible to accrual (measurable and available), and/or when underlying transaction occurs.

Income Tax

Sales Tax

Motor Fuel Tax

o Government-mandated Non-exchange Transactions Record when conditions for receipt are met

Inter-governmental grants (e.g., grant from Federal Government)

o Voluntary Non-exchange Transactions Record when conditions for receipt are met

Similar to other inter-governmental grants, except that no restrictions on the use of the funds are imposed

o Interest accrued as earned

o Miscellaneous Revenue generally cash basis

• Expenditures Generally record when fund incurs liability

• Costs of personnel when paid (but this is close to when incurred because of recurring nature)

• Costs of goods and services when received

• Capital Outlays recorded as expenditures when asset is acquired

• Interest when legally payable (a little different than when incurred, so it is not accrued)

(If due date is one month after fiscal year end, the expenditure may be recorded)

Guidelines for Interest expenditures also apply to other Debt Service (i.e., principal payments)

Types of Funds

Governmental Funds

• General Fund

• Special Revenue Fund

• Capital Project Fund

• Debt Service Fund

• Permanent Fund

Under Modified Accrual Accounting and Current Financial Resources Measurement Focus, Basic Financial Statements Include

• Balance Sheet

• Statement of Revenues, Expenditures, and Changes in Fund Balances

Proprietary Funds

• Internal Service Funds

• Enterprise Funds

Under Accrual Accounting and Economic resources measurement focus, Basic Financial Statements Include

• Statement of Net Assets (Balance Sheet)

• Statement of Revenues, Expenses, and Changes in Fund Net Assets

• Statement of Cash Flows

o Operating

o Noncapital Financing (includes interest and principal paid on debt not related to capital assets)

o Capital and Related Financing (includes capital assets acquired and interest and principal paid on debt related to capital asset acquisitions)

o Investing (includes interest and dividends received)

Fiduciary Funds

• Agency Funds (one government collecting taxes for others)

• Trust Funds (Pension, Investment, Other)

Under Accrual Accounting and Economic resources measurement focus, Basic Financial Statements Include

• Statement of Fiduciary Net Assets

• Statement of Changes in Fiduciary Net Assets

Government-wide Statements (under GASB 4)

• Similar to GAAP for for-profit

• Measurement of Economic Resources

• Accrual Accounting

• Includes recording liabilities for LT Debt, Fixed Assets, and Depreciation

(Under certain conditions, government may choose the modified approach for infrastructure fixed assets, where infrastructure is not capitalized or depreciated. Conditions relate to adequacy of control and maintenance of infrastructure.)

Budgeting (for the General Fund)

Estimated Revenues

Appropriations - Approved or authorized (and estimated) expenditures (in the budget)

Steps in the Expenditure Process

• Appropriation

• Encumbrance A reservation for a Commitment

• Expenditure

• Payment (Disbursement)

At any time, appropriations can be broken down for control purposes into

• Expenditures already made

• Encumbrances (committed, but not expended)

• Unencumbered

Available Original

Remaining = Appropriation Encumbrances - Expenditure

Appropriation

The budget is recorded using debits and credits that are the opposite of actual

Estimated Revenues

Appropriations

Estimated Other Financing Uses (Transfers Out)

Budgetary Fund Balance

Journal Entry Examples For the Governmental Funds

(All entries are recorded in the General (Governmental) Fund unless otherwise stated)

Record the Budget with 400 of expected revenue and 5 of approved expenditures)

Estimated Revenues 400

Appropriations (Budgeted Expenditures) 5

Budgetary Fund Balance 5

Record 00 of tax revenue (and of estimated uncollectibles)

Taxes Receivable-Current 00

Estimated Uncollectible Taxes-Current

Revenues 18

Record taxes received of 176 for current year and 14 for prior year

Cash 10

Taxes Receivable-Current 176

Taxes Receivable-Delinquent 14

Record fees (revenues) for services of 60

Accounts Receivable 60

Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts 0

Revenues 60

Record collections of such fees of 58

Cash 58

Accounts Receivable 58

Record other Revenue of 0 (generally on cash basis)

Cash 0

Revenue 0

Record Expenditures of 0 that did not have an encumbrance

Expenditures 0

Vouchers (accounts) Payable 0

Record encumbrances (commitments) - for things like fixed assets and supplies estimated at 15

Encumbrances 15

Budgetary Fund Balance (BFB)

Reserved for Encumbrances 15

Record receipt of encumbered supplies and payment at 14 actual

BFB Reserved for Encumbrances 15

Encumbrances 15

Expenditures 14

Cash 14

(If the encumbrance is still outstanding at balance sheet date, the reserve for encumbrance is shown as part of fund equity.)

Adjusting entries may be used to record inventory balance (of ) under the "Purchase Method"

Supplies Inventory

Reserve for Supplies Inventory

(part of fund equity)

(When the supplies were originally purchased they were simply recorded as an expenditure.)

Transfers in and transfers out are common and generally also are budgeted.

Closing Entries

Close out Estimated Revenues and Appropriations (the budget) with net going to Budgetary Fund Balance.

Close out Revenues, Expenditures, & Encumbrances (the 'actual') with net going to Fund Balance.

Financial Statements

• Statement of Revenues, Expenditures and Changes in Fund Balance (with Budget and Actual)• Balance Sheet

Fund Equity = Fund Balance = Fund Assets - Fund Liabilities

Unreserved Fund Balance =

Fund Equity (Assets - Liabilities) Reserves

Only the unreserved fund balance is unrestricted and available for appropriation (the reserves have already been committed).

Required Notes to Financial Statements

GASB 4 requires disclosure of

• Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

• Cash deposits with financial institutions

• Investments

• Significant contingent liabilities

• Encumbrances outstanding

• Significant subsequent events

• Annual pension cost and net pension obligations

• Material violations of finance-related legal and contractual provisions

• Debt service requirements

• Commitments under operating leases

• Construction and other significant commitments

• Required disclosures about capital assets

• Required disclosures about long-term debt

• Deficit fund balances or net assets of individual funds

• Interfund receivables and payables

• Significant transactions with discretely presented component units

• Disclosures about donor-restricted endowments

Major Required Supplementary Information

• Budgetary Comparisons for the General Fund and Special Revenue funds with a legally adopted budget

• Disclosures regarding infrastructure if depreciation is not recorded on them

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